Given the usual <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/here-now/jajarkot-survivors-show-collective-resilience" target="_blank">delay in disbursement of reconstruction grants</a>, survivors have taken to building their own temporary shelters with neighbours helping each other out. A total of 26,550 houses collapsed while over 62,000 homes across 13 districts were affected by the <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/deadly-earthquake-hits-w-nepal" target="_blank">6.3 magnitude quake</a>. The Bara-Parsa tornado reconstruction which is one of the most successful post-disaster rebuilding in Nepal could be handy at this point in time. The project fulfilled its mandate of rebuilding 869 houses in 97 days and in doing so, helped protect survivors from future disasters. The houses constructed had <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/here-now/rebuilding-better-than-before" target="_blank">more features than government mandated</a>, they were eco-friendly and adapted to withstand the local climate, all at a cost less than previously estimated.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20240108130148_ce6fda601715b3278ad8d81e1106bae8556985d40a6d2d8181e3ac3552ed861f.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="20240108130148_ce6fda601715b3278ad8d81e1106bae8556985d40a6d2d8181e3ac3552ed861f" data-rendition-name="original" width="5825" height="3883" loading="lazy" alt="Jajarkot eathquake"> <figcaption>Jajarkot earthquake. Photo: DURGA RANA MAGAR</figcaption> </figure>  There are five main elements to why Bara-Parsa tornado reconstruction was such a success and how it can be replicated with the Jajarkot earthquake: Leadership Much of the credit goes to leadership by the Nepal Army 28th Brigade Commander who was in charge of the project. He was clear on his vision, tasks, and scope from day one. His motivation, dedication, and hard work also led to diligence in the work. He was responsible for the welfare, safety and security of the 3,000 troops involved, choosing the right person in the right place at the right time.&nbsp; Coordination and teamwork It was not only the Army that was involved in the reconstruction. The Madhes Province formed the Assisting and Directing Committee under the leadership of the First Secretary to give provincial supervision and leadership. The Parsa-Bara DDMCs under the chairmanship of CDO carried out district-level assistance and supervision, and at the municipal level, Re-Verification Committees were established to facilitate the reconstruction that was led by mayors. Whenever any hindrance occurred, such as in data verification, procurement procedures, acquiring public land, all these bodies came together, discussed and reached a quick decision. The provincial government, both the CDOs, and most importantly, the elected mayors played a vital role and the army remained as a pivot. The most difficult part was getting down to the actual figure for houses destroyed. The preliminery figure was 1,453 houses, but after the CDOs themselves went door-to-door they brought the real number down to 869.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20240114120140_c97fb76a9679623771f6ac8f54e745e1589e2533db542bb370543d526514d9af.jpg" data-media-id="editor_4" data-image-id="20240114120140_c97fb76a9679623771f6ac8f54e745e1589e2533db542bb370543d526514d9af" data-rendition-name="original" width="1125" height="1500" loading="lazy" alt="Bara Parsa tornado"> <figcaption>Survivors of Bara-Parsa tornado. Photo: KIRAN NEPAL</figcaption> </figure>  Prompt decision making The rebuilding process was never stalled due to indecisiveness at any level. The Reconstruction Committee as well as provincial, district, and local bodies facilitated the process. To be sure, not everything worked out. For example, it was planned to provide local communities employment opportunities through construction labour. But even then their daily wage rate was agreed to, it was much higher than what the government had set. So the committee immediately decided to marshal 3,000 plus troops for reconstruction.&nbsp; Likewise, throughout the process there was no interference from any external elements, neither were they entertained. And the whole process remained transparent to everyone. Planning and management Based on a detailed survey and employing experts, the reconstruction plan was flawless. Reconstruction was divided into 12 clusters, and to be carried out in &nbsp;three phases with human resources, material, and technical requirements calculated accordingly. At times, since the reconstruction of one-third of houses was occurring simultaneously, ensuring a smooth supply chain of material remained an issue. Even the contracted manufacturers, especially of compressed cement blocks, UPVC steel windows and doors, and three-layered non-burn thermo-cooling roofs, were not able to provide the designated material according to the agreed timetable. Collaboration with other manufacturers, switching working priorities, and even facilitating the manufacturers helped to meet targets. The designs of the houses were also modified and categorised as per the availability of the land since many of the survivors did not have enough space to build standard houses.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20240114120144_03ef5358f4379edca8a9db3c561893a58729ac6ca8b289ae21841266ef116e38.jpg" data-media-id="editor_5" data-image-id="20240114120144_03ef5358f4379edca8a9db3c561893a58729ac6ca8b289ae21841266ef116e38" data-rendition-name="original" width="1500" height="1125" loading="lazy" alt="Bara Parsa tornado"> <figcaption>Houses destroyed in the 2019 Bara-Parsa tornado. Photo: KIRAN NEPAL</figcaption> </figure>  Legal assistance Likely legal hitches such as the construction material procurement system, and land acquisition process were taken into consideration from the beginning. The army leadership thoroughly discussed the issue with the government and got clearance and facilitation accordingly.&nbsp; This was crucial in unfastening legal knots. Provincial, district, and municipal bodies also helped the reconstruction committee on these occasions leading to the fast-track acquisition of public land, establishing construction bases, acquiring material, and so on. The Bara-Parsa Tornado reconstruction was not easy, it was hot and humid, at times there was heavy rain and floods. But an all-out effort from the state's mechanism, mutual trust, untainted intention, and will power of the engaged team made it possible.&nbsp; Many of these lessons, experiences, and courses of action can be useful in the Jajarkot reconstruction as well. But the most critical ingredient is political will to follow through. Shrijan Bahadur Malla is a DRR expert, a former Nepal Army officer, and involved in Bara-Parsa Reconstruction. You can reach him at <a href="mailto:shrijanmalla07@gmail.com" target="_blank">shrijanmalla07@gmail.com</a>&nbsp;

original

674x448

610x380

500x500

400x266

400x240

400x203

301x200

1250x600

1084x550

Building back better (and quicker)

Life was already difficult for the people of the Karnali because of state neglect, failing agriculture, joblessness and out-migration. The <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/deadly-earthquake-hits-w-nepal">earthquake two months ago</a> just made everything more arduous. The <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/mass-cremations-for-nepal-quake-victims">6.4 magnitude earthquake</a> shook the region just before midnight, killing at least 153 people and destroying 62,000 houses in 11 districts of western Nepal. Familiar with slow delivery of government services, most surviving families have taken matters into their own hands to <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/below-zero-at-ground-zero">get through the bitter winter</a> and to rebuild their lives and livelihoods. Dhan Bahadur Gharti, 55, had recently returned to Sirpachaur in Jajarkot after a year working in Kashmir, and had plans to renovate his house for Dasain. But the earthquake destroyed his house before he could repair it. "There's nothing left," Dhan Bahadur says, peering from inside his tent.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024010811014_0790bab9d5f0012d1edbb7cded438aafe350b028928052709c4f0775b7580364.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="2024010811014_0790bab9d5f0012d1edbb7cded438aafe350b028928052709c4f0775b7580364" data-rendition-name="original" width="1800" height="1163" loading="lazy" alt="Jajarkot earthquake"> <figcaption>Dhan Bahadur Gharti</figcaption> </figure>  The unexpected destruction left his plans in disarray, but there was an immediate need to provide a warm shelter and hot food for his three children.&nbsp; He has some savings from his seasonal work in India, but after he builds a temporary house with the government reconstruction grant Dhan Bahadur expects he will have to go to India to earn more money to complete the rebuilding. Jasbir Thapa, 45, also returned from Kashmir for the Dasain holidays only to have witnessed first hand the <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/nepal-quake-survivors-wait-for-kin-to-return">devastation caused by the earthquake</a>. The government's delayed aid and one-window policy compounded his worries, leaving him torn between family responsibilities and the need to migrate again to India for work to earn money.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024010811018_d09b9d75bf7b81b340ef956a0d0cd8ca09a6386a28aacced3deeaf7fd10b20f6.jpg" data-media-id="editor_5" data-image-id="2024010811018_d09b9d75bf7b81b340ef956a0d0cd8ca09a6386a28aacced3deeaf7fd10b20f6" data-rendition-name="original" width="2620" height="2000" loading="lazy" alt="Jajarkot earthquake"> <figcaption>Jasbir Thapa</figcaption> </figure>  Even after two months, the initial instalment of the Rs50,000 grant for temporary housing from Kathmandu has not reached Sirpachaur. Without jobs and earnings in Nepal, just about every one of the 150 households in Sirpachaur has at least one member working in India. It is hard manual work, and the pay is not good. Still it is more than they can hope for back home in Nepal.&nbsp; "It's the same for everyone, survival is not possible in Nepal," says Thapa, “but working in India the pay is not proportional to the hard manual work we do.” Despite the mountain of hardship on which the earthquake has heaped another layer of misery, there is a sense of community and a collective resilience with neighbours helping each other with the little they have. Villages like Chiuari in Nalgad Municipality, have come together to construct each others’ temporary shelters. They are not waiting for the first instalment of Rs25,000 to come through, but use local material and volunteer labour to help rebuild. Prasad Biswokarma got support from his fellow villagers, to erect a temporary shelter where at least his family would be protected from the bitter cold. He and the whole village are now bracing for rain and snow that is forecast for western Nepal next week.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024010811018_e6f1421cd857f98fa152774124218332772bbc46df8a0dcb5ef82163a3308cd9.jpg" data-media-id="editor_6" data-image-id="2024010811018_e6f1421cd857f98fa152774124218332772bbc46df8a0dcb5ef82163a3308cd9" data-rendition-name="original" width="6000" height="4000" loading="lazy" alt="Jajarkot earthquake"> <figcaption>Neighbours have come together to build temporary shelters for each other, they are not waiting for the first instalment of Rs25,000 to come through.</figcaption> </figure>  The collective struggle for recovery extends to sharing food, blankets, firewood and other essentials. Harikala Rokaya from Pali village has been waiting for government assistance, and help from charities but it never got to where she lives, off the road. With winter setting in and aid absent, she has built her own temporary shelter from salvaged bricks and timber.&nbsp; Mayor Dammar Bahadur Raut of Nalgad Municipality admits that there is a delay in aid distribution, attributing it to bureaucratic hurdles. The allocation of reconstruction grants for temporary shelters from the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority has been marred by procedural delays mainly due to lack of coordination between various levels of government. The delay is affecting 50,000 families. In Sirpachaur too villagers have been contributing voluntary labour for fellow survivors to rebuild. Local activists, and civil society organisations have also joined hands to help the villagers.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024010811018_a61bfa514e0dec0bd7d722742a4264c0a19e443d88f11246ce4ce2656dd6acbb.jpg" data-media-id="editor_7" data-image-id="2024010811018_a61bfa514e0dec0bd7d722742a4264c0a19e443d88f11246ce4ce2656dd6acbb" data-rendition-name="original" width="6000" height="4000" loading="lazy" alt="Jajarkot earthquake"> <figcaption>Temporary shelters in Sirpachaur.</figcaption> </figure>  “The bureaucratic delay in aid disbursement is testing the will and endurance of the affected families, and we have seen exemplary support by community-driven initiatives in this critical time of crisis,” Mayor Raut adds. Ward Chair Bir Bahadur Giri says migration to India is a safety valve, but says it also means that the men folk are away when there is reconstruction work to be done at home. Although many men who had returned for the Dasain festival and were at home when the earthquake struck will probably be staying a bit longer, sooner or later they will be going back to India.&nbsp; With the men mostly away, there are mostly women, children and the elderly left in the earthquake-ravaged villages of Jajarkot and West Rukum. Many of the children are still traumatised by the destruction of the earthquake and the loss of family memories.&nbsp; In one temporary shelter in Sirpachaur, 12-year-old Pashupati Gharti is a Grade 5 student, and still has visible signs of anxiety in his face when he remembers that fateful night. He tries his best with two elder sisters to help his family inside their tarp-roofed shelter.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024010811018_a0c8db81c646d084398671ebb96362ea758e020360887b559184c2b696d19e95.jpg" data-media-id="editor_8" data-image-id="2024010811018_a0c8db81c646d084398671ebb96362ea758e020360887b559184c2b696d19e95" data-rendition-name="original" width="3000" height="2000" loading="lazy" alt="Jajarkot earthquake"> <figcaption>Pashupati Gharti</figcaption> </figure>  "I wonder when our house will be rebuilt," he says staring listlessly into the distance, and to no one in particular. In the aftermath of the earthquake, the boy would have nightmares and missed many days of school. But time heals, and Pashupati is now determined to help with household work in the morning and go to school in the afternoon. There is not a single house intact in this village, rubble still lies in piles on streets where children play Seven Stones trying to hit a pile of stones. For the headmaster of the local school, this is a hopeful sign that the children are starting to play again as their lives return to a semblance of normalcy. The school building in Chiuri village is also damaged, and classes are held in tents or outdoors under the sun. It was fortunate that the earthquake struck at night, otherwise there may have been many casualties among students when either classrooms collapsed.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024010811018_907ea0440af59be75892f398f660893e219ee810dbe29c69db6b3d30d7742a67.jpg" data-media-id="editor_9" data-image-id="2024010811018_907ea0440af59be75892f398f660893e219ee810dbe29c69db6b3d30d7742a67" data-rendition-name="original" width="800" height="533" loading="lazy" alt="Jajarkot earthquake"> <figcaption>Classes are being held outdoors under the sun in quake affected villages.</figcaption> </figure>  The earthquake claimed the lives of 13 children in Chiuri village alone. Of the 36 killed in Rukum West, 19 were children. <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/demographics-of-disaster-in-nepal-quake">Eighty-one children were among the 153 killed on 3 November</a> — more than half the fatalities. Most of the adults killed were women. Twenty-three of the children who survived lost both parents, and measures are being taken for their protection and care. Efforts are underway to provide counselling for affected children. Child Welfare Officer Pradeep Rawal says some parentless children sheltered in orphanages require more time to recover.&nbsp; In Aathbis Kot Municipality of Rukum West which saw a heavy loss of life among children, counselling is being provided to children even though schools are closed for winter holidays. Temporary school construction is underway in Jajarkot and Rukum West, where the current buildings lack proper classrooms due to building safety concerns. In certain areas, parental involvement in building temporary shelters has facilitated continued education for children. Parents' collaboration, aided by outside support, means wooden shelters have come up in some locations to ensure children have space for learning. At Himalaya Devi Basic School in Sirpachaur, parental support helps temporary management, and there is now room for 150 students when schools reopen. Mayor Raut is happy parents themselves are helping to put up temporary classrooms.

Jajarkot survivors show collective resilience

The death toll in the 6.4 magnitude earthquake that struck western Nepal on Friday at midnight has climbed to 157, and it is becoming clear that most of the fatalities are of women and children. Of the 36 initially reported killed in collapsed buildings in Rukum West district, 19 were children, some of them babies as young as 10 months old. It is the same story in neighbouring Jajarkot, nearer to the epicentre of the earthquake where more than 110 people died. Read Also: <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/deadly-earthquake-hits-w-nepal">Deadly earthquake hits W Nepal</a>, Nepali Times&nbsp; The mountainous region is one of the least developed and most remote in Nepal, and families depend on subsistence agriculture. Most of the men folk have traditionally migrated to work in India, or more recently to the Gulf or Malaysia to support families back home. Rukum West is also from where many young people have paid human traffickers to take them to the United States.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104141112_57bc3667d3c96a8fa092654b3a0f653766148c91cd23fc392d08198045f527fc.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="20231104141112_57bc3667d3c96a8fa092654b3a0f653766148c91cd23fc392d08198045f527fc" data-rendition-name="original" width="3600" height="2400" loading="lazy" alt="W Nepal earthquake 2"> <figcaption> </figcaption> </figure>  Although the earthquake was of moderate intensity and hit a sparsely populated area, the death toll was high because it struck at night when most people were sleeping at home. Also, houses here are flimsy, traditionally built with stones and mud mortar. Most of the reinforced concrete structures in the main market areas seem to have survived the shaking. The shallowness of the earthquake below the epicentre at Barekot of Jajarkot also seems to have meant that the heaviest damage is concentrated mainly in the two districts. Only one person was wounded in the neighbouring Rolpa district. &nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104141116_3b45bbe69d386bc74ac3263b2e99c6d838a11aec2e48b71a9cfa48c1303ebbf7.jpg" data-media-id="editor_2" data-image-id="20231104141116_3b45bbe69d386bc74ac3263b2e99c6d838a11aec2e48b71a9cfa48c1303ebbf7" data-rendition-name="original" width="1800" height="1350" loading="lazy" alt="W Nepal earthquake 3"> </figure>  In Barekot itself, chair of the rural municipality Bar Bahadur Giri said the destruction was beyond his town’s ability to handle it on its own. “Every house here is damaged, there are aftershocks, and people are camped out in the open to spend the second night,” he said by phone. After the first jolt, Giri and his staff started calling around and drove out on their motorcycles to the most affected areas to help dig people trapped under the rubble. Luckily, no one was killed in the municipality and there were only four injured who were taken to hospital. “Of the 3,587 houses in the municipality, 2,000 of them have completely collapsed,” Giri said. “The schools and health posts are also damaged. We urgently need tents, food for those who are out in the open.”  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104141120_abcd10569e2da645684281bd1088f5272758c269c810924d883555da98851cc1.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="20231104141120_abcd10569e2da645684281bd1088f5272758c269c810924d883555da98851cc1" data-rendition-name="original" width="3600" height="2400" loading="lazy" alt="earthquake Surkhet "> </figure>  Jajarkot and Rukum West are so remote that medical are is difficult even in the best of times. The two districts have some of the highest child and maternal mortality rates in Nepal. Now, with the roads blocked by rockfalls, it is even more difficult. In 2008, a cholera epidemic caused by feral contamination of springs after a long drought killed at least 47 people in Jajarkot, many of them children. Jajarkot falls under the Health Service Directorate based in Surkhet that looks after 10 districts in Karnali. Its head Rabin Khadka says his office has sent 26 additional medical personnel, equipment and medicines to the affected areas by road since Saturday morning. Nurses and surgical teams have also been sent from hospitals run by the APF, Army and Police.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104141116_93f4311f095f8cd59b6f32c09fa59e1403eeb02a644182d6fc93872907375b92.jpg" data-media-id="editor_4" data-image-id="20231104141116_93f4311f095f8cd59b6f32c09fa59e1403eeb02a644182d6fc93872907375b92" data-rendition-name="original" width="1800" height="1350" loading="lazy" alt="earthquake hospital"> <figcaption>Injured being treated at Jajarkot District Hospital.</figcaption> </figure>  “Whatever human resources and equipment and medicines we have here is not enough, we have asked Kathmandu to rush help,” Khadka said. “We also lack information about where the need is greatest, and what type of help is needed the most. We are just assuming that the requirements are great everywhere. We are also trying to send a surgical team to avoid long bumpy rides to hospital for the seriously injured.” Surkhet’s Bheri Hospital, Police and Army hospitals also have reared 105 beds for referral patients from the mountain districts. Seven severely injured have been medevaced to Teaching Hospital in Kathmandu.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104141120_28cea638ef250da3b6e4ddc7a3137c6db4b11650e419bc6d464c353e071b9811.jpg" data-media-id="editor_5" data-image-id="20231104141120_28cea638ef250da3b6e4ddc7a3137c6db4b11650e419bc6d464c353e071b9811" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1200" loading="lazy" alt="earthquake "> <figcaption>Seriously injured people have been taken to Bheri Hospital, Nepalganj.</figcaption> </figure>  According to Nepal police, as of Saturday evening105 people in Jajarkot, the epicentre of the earthquake and 52 in adjoining district of West Rukum have died, and 202 others are injured. Among the dead included Sarita Singh Thakuri, the Deputy Mayor of Nalgad Municipality, Jajarkot. Six districts in Karnali and Far West have been affected by the earthquake. This is the highest death toll since the 2015 earthquake which killed nearly 9,000 people. The Nepal Army has dispatched five helicopters and an aircraft for the rescue and relief operations.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104141124_aa5b0d42f91e1d9d2a54af6c748bef7babe433bf312b56bd229c2de1c52c5956.jpg" data-media-id="editor_6" data-image-id="20231104141124_aa5b0d42f91e1d9d2a54af6c748bef7babe433bf312b56bd229c2de1c52c5956" data-rendition-name="original" width="1030" height="760" loading="lazy" alt="Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal"> <figcaption>Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal in Rukum.</figcaption> </figure>  Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal had visited Jajarkot district hospital this morning to meet survivors, and brought some of the severely injured with him in his Army helicopter to Surkhet. To ensure effective response, the Home Ministry has decided to entrust the District Disaster Management Committee the responsibility of streamlining rescue and relief through its Surkhet and Nepalganj hubs. &nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104141124_e330974abe84edf98b39caf71b55efd42193ed7ae2abfa508679dafe146ccedf.jpg" data-media-id="editor_7" data-image-id="20231104141124_e330974abe84edf98b39caf71b55efd42193ed7ae2abfa508679dafe146ccedf" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1200" loading="lazy" alt="Earthquake"> <figcaption>Injured being taken to Nepalganj.</figcaption> </figure>  The government has also decided to send Rs50 million to the disaster management fund of Jajarkot and West Rukum from the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority. Seismologists have long warned that a mega earthquake is due in western Nepal as there has not been one to release the tectonic pressure for over 600 years. But experts warn that the tremor on Friday may not have been enough to release the built-up tension.

Demographics of disaster in Nepal quake

<a href="https://nepalitimes.com/here-now/past-disasters-foretold">Himalayan seismologists have been warning</a> that a mega earthquake is long overdue in western Nepal because there has not been a big one to release the tectonic tension there for over 600 years. The estimated 6 magnitude earthquake just before midnight on Friday with an epicentre in Jajarkot was exactly in this region, but not the 8+ magnitude that had been predicted. The official death toll in the remote villages of Karnali Province is now 125 with hundreds injured, but these figures are expected to rise. Friday night’s earthquake rattled Kathmandu and New Delhi, both 500km away and shook the densely populated plains of northern India as well as the Tibetan Plateau. There has been an <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/earthquake-vacates-villages-in-nepal">increase in seismic activity in the region</a>: there was a double jolt of 5.3 and 6.3 magnitude epicentred in Bajhang district in far-western Nepal on 3 October that killed one person. The fact that the Jajarkot quake struck in <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/editorial/mind-the-gap">the seismic gap in western Nepal</a> may mean that some of the tension that has been building up beneath may have been released, but it could also be a precursor quake to a bigger one.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104021124_95fc656abd739149dd0e576066da2cc434a7fe4086e1a759b483d25f3a7230cc.png" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="20231104021124_95fc656abd739149dd0e576066da2cc434a7fe4086e1a759b483d25f3a7230cc" data-rendition-name="original" width="1770" height="926" loading="lazy" alt="Nepal earthquake Jajarkot NT"> </figure>  The Indian Plate is converging towards the Eurasian Plate at an average rate of 25mm a year, which is what makes Nepal and the region an active seismic zone. The energy is released in periodic earthquakes, but there is <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/banner/in-a-disastrous-state">a large seismic gap in western Nepal</a> which has not suffered a mega quake since the 16th century. This means the accumulated tectonic energy needs to be released. Seismologists say Friday’s earthquake may not have been strong enough to release all that built-up tectonic pressure. There have been predictions that an 8 magnitude earthquake could see horizontal surface displacement of more than 6 metres along the mountains. “<a href="https://nepalitimes.com/editorial/ain-t-seen-nothing-yet">The 2015 was not a mega earthquake</a>, that one is still coming,” warned Surya Narayan Shrestha of the National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET) in an interview with Nepali Times on Nepal’s Earthquake Safety Day on 15 January this year. Written records in monasteries in western Tibet chronicle a big earthquake at 6AM on 1 June 1505, and that could have been the last big one that shook western Nepal. Estimated at 8.9, there are also historical records in Moghul India of destruction in Agra and other cities at the time.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104021124_d1f4334aaf83e0a8a240166f589e6640f931863288ea67a7d61a3e1df614cc89.png" data-media-id="editor_6" data-image-id="20231104021124_d1f4334aaf83e0a8a240166f589e6640f931863288ea67a7d61a3e1df614cc89" data-rendition-name="original" width="2244" height="1076" loading="lazy" alt="Nepal earthquake Jajarkot NT"> </figure>  <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/multimedia/lessons-not-learned-from-2015-o2etq6zu">The 2015 earthquake</a> was epicentred in Gorkha and did not affect the western half of Nepal. The region is at added risk because of the danger of another big one, as well as because of poorly constructed buildings and lower awareness about earthquake safety. Friday’s earthquake brought down many buildings made of stone and mud mortar in Jajarkot and West <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/banner/caste-aside">Rukum</a>, and although it hit a relatively sparsely populated region of Nepal the casualty rate was high because it struck at night when families were asleep at home. Mobile phone images from the affected areas show that even concrete buildings collapsed in the market towns, indicating the severe intensity of shaking. Because of the outmigration of young men from western Nepal to work in India or abroad, most of the casualties are said to be women, children and the elderly.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104021124_d4435d1b7abdf56b73b4eea6783fd357a6236e9128f0277568c7e92b8525ec97.jpg" data-media-id="editor_9" data-image-id="20231104021124_d4435d1b7abdf56b73b4eea6783fd357a6236e9128f0277568c7e92b8525ec97" data-rendition-name="original" width="1200" height="900" loading="lazy" alt="Nepal earthquake Jajarkot NT"> <figcaption>The earthquake in Jajarkot was felt even in Kathmandu and New Delhi, and destroyed properties in West Rukum. Photo: RSS</figcaption> </figure>  Nalgad municipality in <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=16988">Jajarkot</a> is said to be the worst affected village, where the deputy mayor Sarita Singh was killed when her home collapsed. Many of the roads leading to these two remote districts are blocked by rockfalls, and there is also reported to be a heavy loss of livestock. Many of the injured are in hospitals in Chaurjhari and Rukumkot, and those more badly injured are being referred to hospitals in Surkhet and Nepalganj.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20231104071112_8161e0dc0a1edeb4c7537aa30d329ad931d8ad8052e4e6c1cb95aa5044495996.png" data-media-id="editor_11" data-image-id="20231104071112_8161e0dc0a1edeb4c7537aa30d329ad931d8ad8052e4e6c1cb95aa5044495996" data-rendition-name="original" width="2190" height="1232" loading="lazy" alt="W Nepal earthquake"> <figcaption>Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dhal evacuated a few of those wounded in he earthquake from Jajarkot to to Surkhet in Nepal Army helicopter on Saturday morning. Photo: PMO</figcaption> </figure>  Two Nepal Army helicopters have flown to the affected regions from Surkhet early morning on Saturday with relief material, as well as to ferry the injured. Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal is due to fly out in another helicopter from Kathmandu.

Deadly earthquake hits W Nepal

<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230228150236/63fe115c9c7e80680e0da4d7jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="768"/><figcaption>Rescue personnel in front of a building destroyed by the 7.8M earthquake in Turkey on 6 February. Photo: TURKISH MINISTRY OF INTERIOR/TWITTER</figcaption></figure>The deadly <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us6000jllz/executive">7.8M earthquake</a> in Türkiye and Syria on 6 February occurred on the East Anatolia fault that had not suffered a major earthquake since 1138. There is a similar <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/in-a-disastrous-state/">seismic gap</a> in western Nepal where there has not been a mega quake since 1505.The area around Aleppo in northern Syria and southern Türkiye has also seen smaller earthquakes, including a 7.0M disaster in 1822. So far, an estimated 25,000 people have been killed with survivors camped out in the open in blizzard conditions.At 7.8M, the Türkiye-Syria earthquake was about the same magnitude as one that hit Nepal in 2015, but it lasted two minutes — more than double the duration of the Nepal quake.Preliminary reports suggest a surface displacement of 3m, whereas in Central Nepal seven years ago it was about 1.2m. The devastation in southern Türkiye and Syria is therefore much worse, with many concrete high-rise apartment blocks coming down at 4:15am when families were still sleeping, leading to a great loss of life.Even though the 2015 earthquake in Central Nepal was not a mega earthquake, it still killed 8,857 people and made millions homeless. Most of the buildings that collapsed in Kathmandu were brick mortar structures, while some multi-storey concrete buildings also came down in areas like Gonga Bu.The <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/page/preparing-for-the-next-big-earthquake-in-nepal">1934 earthquake</a> was 8.0M epicentred in eastern Nepal, and killed at least 16,000 people in Nepal and India. Historical records show that such mega quakes hit Nepal once every 100 years, while smaller ones like the 2015 quake are more frequent.The <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/editorial/mind-the-gap/">large seismic gap in western Nepal</a> between Pokhara and Dadeldhura means so much stress has built up there because of the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates that an earthquake of more than 8 magnitude could happen any day.A mega quake in <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/epicentre-of-two-disasters-in-west-nepal/">western Nepal</a> will impact the whole country, including northern India. This is a level of disaster the whole country needs to be prepared for, not just western Nepal. And to prepare for what we know is coming, we must waste no time in <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/concrete-lessons-of-2015/">reinforcing infrastructure</a>, since two-thirds of the all buildings in Nepal are not seismic resistant.After 2015, there is a general <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/nation/false-sense-of-security-about-strength-of-reinforced-concrete-structures,2240">misconception that concrete buildings are safer</a> because many of them survived the quake. But most reinforced concrete structures in Kathmandu would not have survived if the intensity then was slightly higher and the shaking had lasted as long as this week’s earthquake in Türkiye-Syria.Given how disaster-prone we know Nepal is, we must seriously put our efforts and money into reducing the risks. This means design earthquake resistant structures, and monitor building compliance.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230228150236/63fe115f9c7e80680e0da4d8jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="427"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Awareness alone does not save lives, people need to change their attitude and practice. Many of us have already forgotten the destruction of the 2015 earthquake, and people have gone back to building unsafe houses as they used to.Individuals must invest a bit more to ensure that their buildings are safe, while the government can provide technical expertise. This means retrofitting especially public buildings like schools and hospitals, but this should not cost more than one-third of what a new building would.<a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/page/not-out-of-danger-the-big-one">Retrofitting can be a lifesaver</a>. None of the schools in Central Nepal retrofitted by our organisation NSET suffered damage in 2015, and many served as shelters for the general public for months during the aftershocks.Nepal received immediate help from the international community in search and rescue (SAR) operations in 2015. There were 141 teams from 34 countries with 4,521 personnel that could fly in because Kathmandu airport was not damaged.A search and rescue team from Türkiye was one of the first to arrive on 26 April 2015 with 82 rescue members, 2 canines and stayed for two weeks. Türkiye's search-and-rescue response in Nepal under the its Prime Minister’s Disaster and Emergency Management Authority, known as AFAD. It also sent 16 tons of supplies including tents, food, water and supplies for children.Several other Turkish agencies including the Humanitarian Aid Foundation, Turkish Red Crescent, Search and Rescue Foundation and Confederation of Public Servants Trade Unions had sent <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/life/more-than-7-000-dead-in-nepal-quake/52510">emergency and medical supplies</a>, doctors and search and rescue experts.Nepal needs to reciprocate Türkiye’s generous and prompt assistance seven years ago, and show solidarity during this tragedy. Nepal has also been able to build back better within 5-6 years and can share some of its experience.By the time Nepal’s teams are mobilised in a few days, search and rescue operation may be already of less relevance. However, medical teams with expertise in orthopaedics, trauma care and essential medical supplies will be useful since responders have themselves been caught up in the disaster.Nepal Red Cross has a strong system and experience in local response and volunteer mobilisation, and can go with essential humanitarian supplies like shelter and non-food items.In the medium term, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/project/UNFOLDING-FOREIGN-AID-AND-ITS-CONTRIBUTION-TO-DISASTER-RESILIENCE-A-CASE-OF-EARTHQUAKE-2015-IN-NEPAL">Nepal’s experience</a> in rural housing reconstruction can help during the recovery and reconstruction. Organisations like NSET and others have amassed experience in helping recovery, reconstruction in other earthquakes in Gujarat, Bam, Banda Aceh, Kashmir and Nepal itself.We can offer human resource support in dealing with the planning and implementation of housing reconstruction. Technical assistance to transfer Nepal’s experiences, lessons and good practices for both urban and rural reconstruction will be of much help. Additionally, Nepal can pledge support for recovery and reconstruction.Surya Narayan Shrestha is the Executive Director of the National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET).

Turkey and Nepal face similar seismic risks

<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a03c9c7e80680e0d7029jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1500" height="1000"/><figcaption>Photo: SUMAN NEPALI</figcaption></figure>As Nepal prepared to mark National Earthquake Safety Day on 16 January to commemorate the 8.3 magnitude disaster that hit Kathmandu in 1934, the country went into mourning for <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/pokhara-bound-flight-crashes-in-nepal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the air crash in Pokhara</a>.There were 72 people on board and there are likely no survivors. This was the worst disaster in <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/60-years-of-living-dangerously/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Nepal’s domestic aviation</a>, and the highest number of casualties after two crashes of international flights one-after-another in Kathmandu in 1992.The message from these tragedies is that Nepal is a <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/disasters-in-nepal-come-in-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">disaster-prone country</a> — either human induced or natural. But even though earthquakes, landslides or floods may be ‘natural phenomena’ the disasters are more destructive because of manmade causes.<img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a0409c7e80680e0d702apng.png" alt="" width="640" height="592">Social media posts have condemned the coalition government’s decision to mark the crash with a day off. Most said it should have been taken as a day of reckoning about preventing and being prepared for all kinds of disasters.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a0449c7e80680e0d702bjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="2048" height="1365"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>The <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/page/preparing-for-the-next-big-earthquake-in-nepal" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1934 earthquake</a> was epicentre in eastern Nepal, and killed at least 16,000 people in Nepal and India. Historical records show that a temblor of that magnitude hits Nepal at least once every 100 years, while smaller quakes are more frequent.“2015 was not a mega earthquake, it is still due,” warns Surya Narayan Shrestha, Executive Director of the National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET).He adds that there is a <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/editorial/mind-the-gap/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">large seismic gap in western Nepal</a> where there has not been a big earthquake since 1505, meaning that so much tectonic energy has accumulated that the region is overdue for a disaster of more than 8 magnitude.The Indian Plate is converging towards the Eurasian Plate at an average rate of 25mm a year, which is what makes Nepal and the region an active seismic zone.“We have been lucky that we haven’t had a mega-quake yet in <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/past-disasters-foretold/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the seismic gap</a> between Pokhara all the way to Dadeldhura but this also means we could witness the biggest one yet given the stress accumulated,” says Anil Pokhrel, Chief Executive of the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA).“In fact, it will be catastrophic,” Pokhrel earns. “The 1505 earthquake killed one-third of Nepal’s population even back then.”<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a0479c7e80680e0d702cjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1400" height="516"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>An 8M+ earthquake in faraway <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/epicentre-of-two-disasters-in-west-nepal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">western Nepal</a> will not spare Kathmandu either, and half of Nepal’s population will be directly affected. Experts estimate that there will be more than 100,000 casualties and over 1.5 million buildings will collapse across the country. Large parts of northern India will also be hit“This is the level of disaster the whole country needs to be prepared for, not just western Nepal,” warns NSET’s Shrestha.There is therefore no time to waste <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/concrete-lessons-of-2015/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">reinforcing infrastructure</a>, but that is a tall order since a survey showed that two-thirds of all the buildings in Nepal will collapse in a major earthquake.The 7.8M quake in 2015 was a warning, and it has had some effect in increasing preparedness. In fact, Nepal’s record of reconstruction is noted as a success given the scale of destruction in the aftermath. But similar levels of preparedness is <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/regular-columns/guest-editorial/guest-editorial-better-late-than-never,891" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">needed now for the Next Big One</a>.There is also a general <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/nation/false-sense-of-security-about-strength-of-reinforced-concrete-structures,2240" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">misconception that concrete buildings are safer</a> because they survived the 2015 earthquake. But experts say if the shaking had lasted just a few seconds longer and if the intensity of the tremor was a bit higher, most reinforced concrete buildings in Kathmandu would have also collapsed.<img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a04a9c7e80680e0d702djpeg.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="750"><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a04d9c7e80680e0d702ejpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1500"><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a0509c7e80680e0d702fjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="750">Cement buildings are safer only when they do not flout building standards. Otherwise they are death traps because Nepal just does not have enough rescue equipment and skills required for <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/nation/Search-locate-%20rescue-in-collapsed-concrete-houses,3676" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">search and rescue from concrete structures</a>.“Concrete is among the most complex of construction materials and requires stringent quality control,” says Anil Pokhrel. “The quality of some of these do not meet quality standards.”Substandard cement means weak concrete, not just in urban centres but across Nepal as cement construction spreads to even remote parts of the country due to road expansion.Most recently, the 8 November 2022 6.6M <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/earthquake-vacates-villages-in-nepal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">earthquake in Doti</a> killed 6 people while nearly 15,000 houses and 215 public buildings were damaged in four districts in the far west. A post-mortem of the disaster found that not even 5% of buildings in the affected areas followed even the most basic building codes.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a0539c7e80680e0d7030jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="1600"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>This means very low awareness among the public as well as municipal authorities about <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/headline/Ruined-future,3471" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">enforcing building codes</a>. This points to an urgent need to capacitate engineers to design earthquake resistant structures, and masons who can build them accordingly. But most important is monitoring building compliance.“Knowledge alone is not enough to save lives, we need people to change their attitude and practice,” says Shrestha. “As it is, we have already forgotten the destruction post-2015 earthquake and people are now building back the way they used to. People must invest a bit more to ensure that their buildings are safe while the government can provide technical expertise.”<img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a0579c7e80680e0d7031jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="427"><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a05a9c7e80680e0d7032jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="427">Engineers say it costs only 10% more to make a traditional building earthquake resistant. This means the building will not suffer major damage in moderate tremors, and even if it collapses with bigger shaking it gives people time to escape. Even if 100% earthquake proof buildings were possible to make, they would be too expensive.For existing buildings, however, there is an option of retrofitting them, but should not cost more than one-third of what a new building does.<a style="background-color: #ffffff; font-size: 15px; letter-spacing: 0.01em;" href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/page/not-out-of-danger-the-big-one" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Retrofitting can be a lifesaver</a>. In the 2015 earthquakes, none of the school buildings in and around Kathmandu Valley retrofitted by the NSET suffered any damage, and in fact served as shelters in the aftermath.As it is, green and open spaces which acted as shelters from earthquakes in the past are being traded for residential and commercial buildings across cities. But NSET with support of various municipalities and Kathmandu Valley Development Authority has recently mapped 1,000 open spaces, most of them in Kathmandu Valley which can be viewed at <a href="http://bipadportal.gov.np" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">bipadportal.gov.np</a>.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a05c9c7e80680e0d7033jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="345"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Close to 8,000 schools and 30,000 classrooms were damaged or destroyed in 2015. The fact that it struck on a Saturday saved the lives of thousands of students which should be taken as a sign to reinforce school buildings all over Nepal with topmost priority.“If the 2015 earthquake had happened on any other day than Saturday, we estimate that at least 30,000 students could have been killed,” says Shrestha.NSET has managed to retrofit 2,000 schools across Nepal in a joint collaboration with the government, but there are 32,000 government schools in Nepal with 80,000 school buildings between them. More than half of them are vulnerable to future quakes.It is not only the <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/lessons-not-learned-from-2015/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">school infrastructure</a> that needs to be reinforced, but their curriculum has to be designed in such a way that students and teachers alike know the dangers and how to protect themselves. The schools need to be prepared at all times with frequent emergency drills and training about earthquake safety.While <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/editorial/lessons-still-not-learnt/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">preparedness is the key</a> to reducing the damage, efficient response in the aftermath can save the most lives in the ‘golden hour’. With the spread of concrete buildings, Nepal needs to immediately invest in equipment for collapsed structure search and rescue like snake-eye and robo-worm cameras, acoustic, thermal and motion sensors to detect human life under the rubble.Another urgent measure is to plan stockpiling of immediate digging and relief material for which the government is building provincial as well as district warehouses, many of which are under construction.A recent study undertaken by NDRRMA titled ‘Emergency Preparedness and Response Assessment 2022-2030’ found that Nepal needs nearly $200 million in the next seven years to prepare for future disasters like the one projected for western Nepal.“Given the sheer scale of the overdue earthquake in the west, we need to invest a lot more in disaster preparedness, from constructing stronger structures and retrofitting our homes, schools and hospitals to developing a better response mechanism,” says Anil Pokhrel.<img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230208140212/63e3a0609c7e80680e0d7034jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="829">With the understanding that financing <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/disastrous-management-in-nepal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">disaster risk reduction</a> is more effective and economical than a post-disaster response like search, rescue, relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery, the government has developed the Nepal Disaster Risk Financing Strategy so the state plans to provide insurance for all the public and private buildings in an event of a major earthquake.NSET’s Surya Narayan Shrestha agrees: “Given how disaster-prone we know Nepal is, we must seriously put our efforts and money into reducing the risks.”

Sonia Awale

In a disastrous state

<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230112100132/63bfd3da9c7e80680e0d3079jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="853"/><figcaption>All Photos: DHANBAHADUR THAPA</figcaption></figure>Almost every household in western Nepal has a family member working in India, and the 6.6 magnitude earthquake that shook the region last month has added to the exodus.Six people were killed, and there was widespread destruction. In Achham's Sanfebagar 90% of homes were damaged. But even a month later, there has been no detailed assessment of the damage, and even more villagers have been forced to migrate to India to earn money for repairs.Like many in this arid region, Dal Bahadur Bhool is a subsistence farmer. His house was destroyed, and he has no money for repairs and no option but to follow thousands of others from far-western Nepal to earn some money in India.Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/epicentre-of-two-disasters-in-west-nepal/">Epicentre of two disasters in West Nepal</a>, Sonia Awale“His family has been under the tent for almost a month, his children are also sick with cold,” says Gom Rawal, a neighbour. “There is no other income for the family or help, so he is going to India in a few days to try to make a living.”Five other families from the nearby Khaptad Valayanta and Putru villages in Achham are also preparing to migrate to the Tarai, where a few families have some land, or to India. “The number of people looking to leave is high among the families whose homes have been damaged,” adds Rawal, who is also the member of the Achham District Committee of the CPN-Socialist Party.<img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230112100132/63bfd3dd9c7e80680e0d307ajpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1034" height="590"><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230112100132/63bfd3e09c7e80680e0d307bjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="1600"><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230112100132/63bfd3e59c7e80680e0d307cjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="1600">Pooja Kadayat of Sanfebagar-7 has already moved to Bangalore where her husband is employed after their home collapsed. Her uncle Dharma Kadayat says: “Many of us continue to live under tents in bad conditions, while some have gone south, there has been no proper survey of the exact numbers of how many have left.”The earthquake epicentre was at Khaptad National Park in Doti, and struck at 2:12AM local time, with over 300 aftershocks over the following days. Achham and Doti district suffered the worst damage. Six have died and 10 were injured in Purbichoki where 11,000 houses sustained cracks and 120 were levelled. Many families are now either living under tents or have migrated elsewhere."We had a sudden rush of trauma patients from Doti and Achham who needed surgery, and we referred some of the more serious cases to Dhangadi," says Mandeep Pathak, an orthopaedic surgeon at Bayalpata Hospital, where the non-profit Nyaya Health Nepal provides free medical care to the people of surrounding districts. Many staff homes were damaged, although the hospital itself with its <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/foundations-for-sustainable-buildings-in-nepal/">seismic resistant rammed earth architecture</a> was unscathed.Western Nepal has not seen a meda-quake for 500 years, and continues to be at risk of a disaster of 8M or higher. Central Nepal also saw an uptick in out-migration of people in the aftermath of the 2015 earthquake that was 7.8 on the Richter scale.In Sanfebagar, 6,000 houses have sustained cracks with a few completely destroyed. “Nonetheless, there is considerable risk to live in the buildings that didn’t come down,” says deputy municipality chair Shiv Bahadur Kunwar.The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA) provides compensation only after the full assessment, which is still pending. The local government has therefore stepped in, collecting funds from its budget and community organisations. “But one tent and a couple days’ worth of food is not enough,” says Kunwar. As winter sets in, more people under the tents are getting sick and one three-month-old girl has died of exposure.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230112100132/63bfd3e89c7e80680e0d307djpeg.jpg" alt="" width="870" height="560"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Dijan Bhattarai of the NDRMMA in Kathmandu blames the 20 November general elections for the delayed response, but adds that reconstruction work will be done by July 2023. “But we are conducting a preliminary survey. Reconstruction will take place after we prepare the damage report to find long-term solutions,” he says.The Authority has been providing Rs500,000 for houses destroyed due to heavy rains, Rs400,000 in the hills, and Rs300,000 in Tarai. But there are no such provisions yet for earthquakes. Delays, poor management and lack of relief will only exacerbate the problem.“With migration comes the problem of social dislocation, low production, increase in criminal activities, competition for opportunities, unbalanced population,” says sociologist Ram Gurung. “Even if reconstruction or other jobs cannot be created quickly, it is necessary to properly counsel people affected.”Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/latest/better-forecasting-reduces-flood-impact-in-nepal/">Better forecasting reduces flood impact in Nepal</a>Out-migration in Doti predates the latest earthquake. Sanju Thapa, ward chair of Patalkot in Sanfebagar, says many families have been concerned about increasing risk of landslides and other disasters. Over hundred of the 566 families in Patalkot have relocated in the last few years, and 90 more are planning to leave following the quake.A landslide in 2010 killed 10 people of the same family in Patalkot. Some hundred houses were at risk, but nothing was done in lack of proper research and evaluation, adds Thapa.<img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230112100132/63bfd3eb9c7e80680e0d307ejpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="597"><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20230112100132/63bfd3ef9c7e80680e0d307fjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="597">“Before, only men would go to India for work, leaving behind the women and the children,” adds Min Bahadur Kunwar of Sanfebagar. “Now, whole families are leaving."Most have moved to Kailali, Kanchanpur or Banke in the plains of Nepal, others have gone to Mumbai and other cities in India. Eight schools have shut down in Sanfebagar in recent years because there are no children left. In Bhagwati Basic School, where Kunwar is a teacher, the number of students dropped from 330 to 200 in just the past year, and he expects this to drop further.Says Sanju Thapa: “This time, the earthquake has caused even more visible and invisible damage. People think the whole region is unsafe and are moving out, leaving behind the elderly, empty houses and barren slopes.”Read more:<a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/rebuilding-five-years-after-2015-quake/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rebuilding five years after 2015 quake</a>, Alisha Sijapati<a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/concrete-lessons-of-2015/">Concrete lessons of 2015</a>, Sonia Awale

Anita Bhetwal

Earthquake vacates villages in Nepal

<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111412114/6372210a9c7e80680e0c0298jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1500" height="1125"/><figcaption>Gabions constructed by local lodge owners near Chukhung village in 2016, following an englacial flood from the Lhotse glacier in 2015. The embankment protected the village during a second flood in 2016. Photo: ALTON C BYERS</figcaption></figure>The development of <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/tracing-past-glacial-floods-in-kangchenjunga/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">glacial lakes from receding glaciers</a>, contained by either terminal moraines or bedrock, is commonly linked with global warming since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA), and are thought to be increasing in number and size.Such lakes are prone to sudden and catastrophic drainage of their water which is known as <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/danger-nepals-glacial-lakes-are-filling-up/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">glacial lake outburst floods</a> (GLOFs). Dam breakage can result from rapid lake area expansion rates, dead-ice melting in moraines, destabilising seepage processes, sudden lake water level change, and surge waves created by rockfall or ice calving.The stored lake water that is released has caused <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/a-terrifying-assessment-of-himalayan-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">enormous death and devastation downstream</a>. However, there are a range of other cryospheric processes and hazards that are only beginning to receive attention. They, too, can result in landslides, debris flows, and/or other major glacier-related flood events.We focus on three of these lesser-known and poorly documented phenomena — englacial conduit floods, permafrost-linked rockfall, and debris flows. All three took place in the Nepal Himalaya during the past decade.Englacial Conduit Floods<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111412114/6372210e9c7e80680e0c0299jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1421" height="900"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Debris-covered glaciers with gradients steeper than 2° are prone to meltwater drainage as opposed to the pooling and development of large glacial lakes. Consequently, they often develop a network of englacial conduits, or cave-like features, within the glacier itself.The conduits may be interconnected and linked to surficial meltwater ponds characteristic of stagnating and ablating debris-covered glaciers. These conduits are usually water filled during the summer months, contained within the glacier by an ice lens or dam located below the exterior debris cover. They are water free during the winter months.Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/it-is-getting-hotter-on-the-roof-of-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">It is getting hotter on the roof of the world</a>, Kunda DixitFlood triggers can include the rapid drainage of a surficial meltwater pond directly into water-filled conduits, overland floods from high precipitation events, where floodwaters enter sinkholes that connect directly to the conduits, or the sudden discharge of water from one internal conduit to another.Retaining ice lenses can then fracture from the increased hydrostatic pressure, with flood waters emerging directly out of the glacier itself.The discharged water from multiple conduit outlets can then merge to create <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/editorial/more-himalayan-tsunamis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">significant downstream flood activity</a>, with peak discharges in the range of several hundred cubic meters per second.These floods, while considerably smaller than most known and recorded GLOFs, can nevertheless result in damage downstream.Permafrost-linked, Rockfall-induced GLOFs and Debris Flows<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111412114/637221119c7e80680e0c029ajpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1500" height="732"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>The impacts of global warming trends can be particularly conspicuous in glaciated landscapes, notably in the form of rapidly receding glaciers and the formation of <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/living-below-nepals-melting-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">glacial lakes</a>.Growing evidence suggests that similar changes are also occurring at above 6,000m elevations with the thawing permafrost that can impact the mechanical strength and hydraulic permeability of high elevation rock faces.Rockfalls previously constrained by year-round frozen temperatures can set in motion a cascade of catastrophic processes below, including more rockfalls, debris flows, explosive impact with glaciers below in addition to triggering glacier-related floods downstream.On 20 April 2017, a flood on the Barun Valley in the Makalu-Barun National Park in eastern Nepal blocked the confluence of the Barun with the Arun River, resulting in a potentially dangerous 200m long lake.Our follow-up study during May-June 2017 revealed that the source of the flood was the &lt;0.1 km2 Langmale Glacial Lake. In spite of its small size, the estimated 1.3 × 106m3volume flood caused extensive downstream damage to forests, pastureland, and some infrastructure down to the flood’s attenuation point in Yangle Kharka.Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/global-heating-melts-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Forests replace glaciers in the Himalaya</a>, Tufan NeupaneHowever, instead of the flood trigger being a snow or ice avalanche into the lake, the cause turned out to be a massive, high altitude breakage of solid rock from the east face of Saldim Peak (6,388 m). The debris landslide plummeted 1,200m down to the Langmale Glacier, creating a massive explosion upon impact characterised by a dust cloud and hurricane-force winds.A 1.1 million m3 debris flow of ice, debris, and sediment then cascaded directly into the Saldim Glacial Lake below, triggering a hyper-concentrated slurry outburst flood that grew progressively larger and more destructive as it continued down valley.Similar processes are thought to have triggered <a href="http://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/nation/Anatom-of-a-Himalayan-tsunami,1330" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the 2012 Seti flood near Pokhara</a> that killed 70 people, and 2021 Chamoli flood in Uttarakhand that left 300 dead and destroyed several under construction hydropower projects.Swiss permafrost specialist Wilfried Haeberli, using recent examples from the Swiss Alps, Cordillera Blanca in Peru, and Mt Everest region of Nepal, believes that the probability of similar flood events will continue to increase with the continued formation of new glacial lakes below high mountains.Earthquake-induced GLOFs<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111412114/637221149c7e80680e0c029bjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1340" height="1026"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Seismic activity is a <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/nation/melting-mountains-shake,3073" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">potential trigger of GLOFs</a>. The fragile and unconsolidated nature of most terminal moraines means they can be easily damaged during earthquakes, releasing water downstream.Following the 25 April 2015 earthquake, a team of international remote sensing specialists from the University of Arizona mapped 4,312 landslides to identify potential hazards. They surveyed 491 glacier lakes for earthquake damage, finding nine landslide-impacted lakes but no visible satellite evidence of GLOFs. The lack of GLOFs was attributed to the impacted region’s extreme topography, which may have played a role in buffering the potentially destructive impact of the shock waves.<a style="font-size: 15px; letter-spacing: 0.01em;" href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/langtang-copes-with-quake-and-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">An earthquake-triggered avalanche</a> of ice and rock was dislodged from the Langmoche Glacier above Dig Tso glacial lake in 2015 in the Khumbu. The avalanche created a 4.2–8.2m seiche wave and small outburst flood within the Bhote Kosi downstream. Although the flood was largely contained within the river channel, several bridges were destroyed.Dig Tso first experienced major GLOF activity on 4 August 1985, as a result of a similar ice avalanche from the Langmoche Glacier. A resulting avalanche created a surge wave that breached the terminal moraine, unleashing an estimated 5 million m3 of water that killed five people and  caused extensive damage downstream.The 2015 repeat event is important because it demonstrates that even though a glacial lake has already experienced an outburst flood, it can still be dangerous, subject to additional flooding activity in the future, and in need of regular monitoring.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111412114/637221179c7e80680e0c029cjpeg.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1500"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Each of these phenomena need more detailed study to develop the most effective prevention, mitigation, and adaptation approaches possible. Such studies will most likely be strengthened if they include a on-site or remote sensing reconnaissance of the event as soon after its occurrence as possible, along with the participation, insights, and experience of local people.<a style="font-size: 15px; letter-spacing: 0.01em;" href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/opinion/climate-risk-to-hydropower-investment/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Large hydropower projects are particularly vulnerable</a> to the impacts of glacier floods, as has happened  repeatedly in recent years. Such projects need to plan for such catastrophic events, which have thus far been largely ignored within the pre-construction feasibility and environmental impact study process.Transboundary research and cooperation will also be essential to minimising the impacts of <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/global-heating-melts-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">future GLOFs</a>, particularly along the Nepal-China border.If scientists can share the results of their research with decision-makers, more timely mitigation programs will be possible.Alton C Byers, PhD is a Senior Research Associate and Faculty at the Institute for Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado at Boulder. A scientific version of this article, recently published in Mountain Research and Development, can be downloaded for free<a href="https://bioone.org/journals/mountain-research-and-development/volume-42/issue-2/MRD-JOURNAL-D-21-00045.1/Three-Recent-and-Lesser-Known-Glacier-Related-Flood-Mechanisms-in/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-21-00045.1.full" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> here</a>. Byers is currently researching alpine ecosystems in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area.

Nepal’s mountains are melting

<figure><img width="3000" height="1998" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721da99c7e80680e0bd4fejpeg.jpg" alt=""/><figcaption>The Taleju Temple of Patan with the Mulchok courtyard in 2019. Photo: NHDP.</figcaption></figure>Seven years ago, on a particularly gloomy Saturday, the ground groaned as an earthquake shook Central Nepal, flattening villages and killing thousands.<a href="http://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/nation/Monumental-loss,2215">Many historical monuments</a> of Kathmandu Valley were reduced to rubble in just 50 seconds. Photos of the ruins crossed the world: a broken Dharara, toppled houses leaning on each other over darkened streets, piles of bricks and timber covered in yellow dust. Seven years later, monuments are coming out of their scaffolds, while others still have cracks that run the length of their walls.Kathmandu <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/kathmandus-temple-restoration-after-1934-quake/">has rebuilt itself</a> every century after a major earthquake. The decision on how to rebuild is determined by the resources and sensibilites of the ruler at the time. What constitutes '<a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=18013#.YmN0LtNBxH0">heritage</a>' also changes with time. <img width="412" height="198" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dac9c7e80680e0bd4ffjpeg.jpg" alt=""><figure><img width="2080" height="2080" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dad9c7e80680e0bd500jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure><figure><figcaption>The temple after the 2015 earthquake which toppled the cupola representing Krishna Mandir. Photo: KVPT.</figcaption></figure><figure><img width="3000" height="2002" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721db39c7e80680e0bd502jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>“A family tree and heritage are almost synonymous,” says conservationist Alok Siddhi Tuladhar. “Because what we get from our ancestors is our heritage.” Our parents and grandparents pass on heirlooms to us, Tuladhar explains, and this gives ‘heritage’ an immediate tangible tone, evidenced by the temples, monuments,<a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/latest/saving-nepals-hiti-heritage/"> hiti spouts</a> that form the cultural legacy of Nepal spanning centuries of artistic and socio-political expression.  “Heritage also goes beyond just the physical monuments,” he adds. “The concept of heritage beyond just an object or artefact is especially true in the case of Nepal, where <a href="http://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/Nepali-Times-Buzz/saving-the-intangible,3303">traditional and Indigenous practices are still living</a> and breathing.” This is different than, for example, the Colosseum in Rome which has archaeological significance, but in the absence of gladiators, that is now recontextualised. “But here in Kasthamandap, it is a vastly different feeling to interact with Ganesh and Gorakhnath, who are still worshipped,” Tuladhar says. "The very manner of interaction is also part of Nepal’s unique heritage." <figure><img width="2592" height="1924" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721db69c7e80680e0bd503jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure><figure><img width="3000" height="2167" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dba9c7e80680e0bd504jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure><figure><img width="2589" height="2056" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dbd9c7e80680e0bd505jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure><figure><img width="6720" height="4480" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dc19c7e80680e0bd506jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Bharat Maharjan of Nepal Heritage Documentation Project agrees: “All human acts, including fashion, cuisine, agriculture and architecture, are heritage, evidence for which can be found in everything around us.”For instance toponyms give us a glimpse into the age-old practices of a certain place and community.“In Kirtipur, there is a place called कांफ्वंद्वं which is now part of the university,” he says, “there used to be a funeral mound and people would go during the time of pandemic to pacify the spirits with wind instruments. Now the practice is obsolete, but the name of the place helps us trace that part of our history and culture.” The Kathmandu Valley is remarkable because this ethnically and religiously diverse bowl-shaped valley of only 665 sq km has at least 130 important monuments, and lies at the crossroads of ancient civilisations of the subcontinent.Read also: <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/Nepali-Times-Buzz/saving-the-intangible,3303">Preserving the intangible</a>, Chandani KC“Another uniqueness of the Valley is that human civilisation has flourished here continuously since ancient times without interruption, as can be found in the inscriptions, monuments and historical records,” adds Maharjan. <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/the-tug-of-tradition/">Continuity is integral to heritage</a>, as without it there is no sense of inheritance. In fact, the word ‘heritage’ is related to Latin heres, meaning ‘heir’, and <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/the-tug-of-tradition/">relies on practices and monuments being kept alive through people</a>.This is closely related to the <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/culture-revolution/">Guthi in Newa communities</a>, the membership to which is also almost always hereditary.Tuladhar explains that the <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/bhaktapur-shows-the-way-by-rebuilding-itself/">core value of building a monument revolves around the Guthi</a>, a unique aspect of the Nepal Mandala’s culture, which oversees the upkeep, jatra, puja associated with the monument through community participation and income from the land allocated to it. “This is an important part of our heritage, because the practice brings together people to form the rich socio-cultural fabric of our society,” Tuladhar adds. “All of which, while intangible practices, help conserve the physical monuments. This way, both tangible and intangible heritage can be kept alive.” <figure><img width="1500" height="1000" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dc69c7e80680e0bd507jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure><figure><img width="2106" height="1404" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dc99c7e80680e0bd508jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>SHAKING THINGS UPWhen the 2015 Gorkha earthquake struck, the Valley had not experienced a natural disaster of such magnitude for 81 years. Many monuments that came down had also been <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/kathmandus-temple-restoration-after-1934-quake/">destroyed in the 1934</a> earthquake, and had been hastily rebuilt. While some temples and palace complexes were restored to their original Newa style of architecture, others were rebuilt in the Rana-era Mughal flourish. Bharat Maharjan thinks this was because of the strict restrictions on importing wood during the Rana-era. “When Jang Bahadur built the Kalmochan Temple with the Mughul-style dome, it quickly became a popular style,” he adds, “The use of brick and stucco plaster was much cheaper and less time-consuming than that of wood, which also included carving.”Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/nepals-traditional-seismic-resistant-designs/">Nepal’s traditional seismic resistant designs</a>, Sheilin TeoThe <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/restoring-a-piece-of-nepals-history/">Bhaidega Temple in Patan</a> used to be an impressive three-tiered structure built in 1678 by Bharo Bhagirath Bhaiya before it collapsed in 1934. It was then quickly rebuilt in the Mughal stucco dome style, which itself collapsed in 2015. It is now being restored to its pre-1934 design.   The <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/bhaktapur-shows-the-way-by-rebuilding-itself/">conservation response of communities and activist groups</a> after the 2015 earthquake was in many ways similar to the age-old traditions of the Valley, just like how their ancestors did after every previous disaster.“Our ancestors were building these monuments knowing there would be earthquakes,” says Tuladhar, “Plans were in place to repair, restore and conserve the structure from time to time.”Such outlook <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/nepals-traditional-seismic-resistant-designs/">appears to have been affected by building materials</a> as well, such as the use of stone in the Lichhavi era versus bricks and wood in the Malla era.  <figure><img width="1500" height="1132" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dcc9c7e80680e0bd509jpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Conservation architect Sudarshan Raj Tiwari suggests in his 2009 paper <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305876762_Material_Authenticity_and_Conservation_Traditions_in_Nepal">Material Authenticity in Tradition of Conservation of Nepal</a> that the difference in the terms used – pratisamskar (‘near to handed down from respected tradition’) in the Lichhavi inscriptions and jirnoddhar (‘renovation’) or navakam vara (‘new cover’) in the Malla period – may be because ‘the later conservation involved less of repair and reconsecration of images and more of restoration, repair and reconstruction of buildings and building parts.’He goes on to write: ‘This also substantiates that the material nature of the <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/nepals-traditional-seismic-resistant-designs/">ensemble of architecture had changed</a> with development of comparatively tall temples in brick and wood and construction and reconstruction methods informed with a greater empirical understanding of the action of deteriorating agents of climate, earthquake and fire.’Countries and communities have different understanding of heritage and its conservation. “The dictionary definition and umbrella practices may not relate to each and every place,” explains Tuladhar. “Nepal has its own rituals, practices, materials and climate, which affects how heritage can be protected and restored.” <figure><img width="900" height="600" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111148/63721dcf9c7e80680e0bd50ajpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure><figure><img width="1024" height="683" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111152/63721dd29c7e80680e0bd50bjpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>At the same time, restoring these cultural sites go beyond replacing the broken pieces. Heritage is intrinsic to the polis, history and cultural activity.Tiwari suggests that is what King Anshuvarma must have been thinking 1,500 years ago when he inscribed after the restoration of the wood and brick Devkula Temple in Kathmandu,“having repaired carefully so as to keep it in good condition for longer into future”.Heritage, says Bharat Maharjan, incorporates the different aspects of society – political, economic and cultural – into one common identity. And every age has its own identity. Palaces and monuments that once looked out of place in Kathmandu have now become a part of Nepal's heritage.Ram Bahadur Kunwar of the Department of Archaeology says: “Each building style and cultural practice mirrors a particular time and society.”  <img width="1500" height="1023" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111152/63721dd49c7e80680e0bd50cjpeg.jpg" alt=""><figure><img width="1500" height="976" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111152/63721dd79c7e80680e0bd50djpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>The stark contrast between the Malla-era buildings and the European neo-classical <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/inside-story-of-nepals-rana-dynasty/">Rana</a> architecture that favoured wide walls and tall windows with Greco-Roman columns tells us that different historical periods developed their own distinct heritage in Kathmandu Valley, often determined by the availability of both materials and craftspeople, and influenced by exchanges with other regions.For example, UNESCO regards the architecture of the Valley as having developed with particular attention to traditional values, cultures and norms to create a harmonious urban landscape through the prohibition of  infrastructure taller than temples in an area. At present, the scenario is quite different. ‘City by-laws have often <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/editorial/lessons-unlearnt/">neglected height restrictions</a> and related measures to protect the immediate surroundings of palace squares and other important sites, which can impact the quality and integrity of the sites,’ UNESCO Nepal wrote in a response to a Nepali Times query.‘Conservation processes need to be informed by traditional practices, skills and knowledge, for without safeguarding the living heritage and the link to the community, it is difficult for the conservation of such monuments and sites to be meaningful.’ <figure><img width="4208" height="2368" src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/20221114111152/63721ddb9c7e80680e0bd50ejpeg.jpg" alt=""><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Alok Siddhi Tuladhar sees that in the <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/here-now/nepals-traditional-seismic-resistant-designs/">tiered-roof temples and shikhara-style shrines</a> complementing each other in the Valley.“Imagine, in the past, the temple roofs with the mountains behind them, against the blue sky, like twins, side-by-side. It is the urban landscape taken together in harmony with nature.”In contrast to this image are the <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/tall-order/">highrise steel structures</a> towering over the ancient towns. The skywalk in-progress in Kamaladi, for example, if seen at the right angle, breaks out behind the Ghanta Ghar like a glitzy attraction in a travelling fair.But then that is probably how residents of Kathmandu regarded the alien design and dimension of the Ghanta Ghar when it was built. Will the Kamaladi stucture and the <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/latest/nepals-shortsighted-view-tower-craze/">many view-towers across the country</a> also one day become a part of our heritage? Read more: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/editorial/lessons-still-not-learnt/">Lessons still not learnt</a>, Editorial

Ashish Dhakal

The history of heritage

<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111410110/637204489c7e80680e0b2853jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="3072" height="2048"/><figcaption>Photo: AMIT MACHAMSI</figcaption></figure>In late December 2021, social and mainstream media in Nepal was abuzz with news of the discovery of a stone slab in Patan Darbar Square area that contained ancient inscriptions.Labourers working on the sewage system in front of the Bhimsen Temple came across the 1.5m high shilalekh in a layer of clay below cement pipes.At the top of the inscription were two deer facing a Dharma Chakra, indicating it to be a Buddhist engraving. A team led by epigraphists Shyam Sundar Rajbanshi and archeologist Prakash Darnal studied the inscription and the area, and have determined it to be around 1,400 years old. Rajbanshi says, the inscription mentions the date Licchavi Sambat 536, which corresponds to 613 CE.“It talks about a bihar built by Brish Dev and renovated by Amshuvarma,” explains Rajbanshi, taking the names of the Lichhavi-era kings. “Normally, inscriptions are kept in the periphery of the monuments, so it is probable that the structure was in that area.”When the inscription was unearthed, the glaze over it was gone and parts of the inscriptions were damaged by mud and cement, rendering it difficult to read. What is surprising is that it was installed using cement, meaning that there must have been an intervention in recent years.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111410110/6372044c9c7e80680e0b2854jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="600"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>“Whoever did it must have known about its existence and yet chose to bury it under the ground. This is also an important part of our history, and it was buried for so long because of past carelessness,” says Rajbanshi.While studying the area, Darnal also found a wall that may be of archeological interest just 1.4m below the recently dug site. “Whether it is of the bihar or not is difficult to say without proper study but we have noted that it is of interest,” he says.Over the centuries, successive dynasties that ruled Kathmandu Valley left behind a legacy of palace complexes and temples, of which many from the Malla era are still standing. But very little is known about the earlier phases of Kathmandu’s history, especially subsurface archeological heritage.Recent <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/buddhas-birthday-in-his-birthplace/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">excavations in Lumbini</a> have uncovered pre-brick structures below standing remains, which suggest that before the development of non-durable buildings there were already structures with non-fired bricks present.Experts say that is also likely in Kathmandu Valley with its historical settlements and the presence of inscriptions dating back to the 4th century CE. Historical chronicles also state that sites like Pashupati were built as far back as the 3rd century, suggesting that there may be more to uncover below these ancient sites. But unplanned and haphazard urbanisation in Kathmandu, and the lack of political and community will are destroying our past.Read Also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/buddhas-birthday-in-his-birthplace/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Buddha's birthday in his birthplace</a>, Nepali TimesIn his travelogue,<a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=EzIDSAdG-wgC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;hl=fr&amp;source=gbs_ge_summary_r&amp;cad=0#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> An Account of Tibet The Travels of Ippolito Desideri of Pistoia, S.J. 1712- 1727</a>, Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri who visited Kathmandu in 1721, mentions a plain stretching two miles (believed to be Tundikhel) near a pond. He writes, ‘There are many pyramids, or towers … dedicated to their Gods.’If it is indeed Tundikhel that Desideri describes, there are only two of the ‘many’ temples remaining in the vicinity, the Bhadrakali temple in the eastern side and the Mahankal temple on the western edge. Others may have been destroyed or buried over the years,  the remains of which may still be around.“Ground levels in cities rise overtime as new structures are built over the rubble of older ones that have collapsed or been abandoned  due to various reasons like fire or in case of Kathmandu Valley, earthquakes,” explains Rohit Ranjitkar of the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust (KVPT), who did his PhD in heritage restoration.The Pantheon in Rome was built on the site of another structure built around 27 BCE, but was destroyed in a fire. It was restored around 80 CE, but was again burnt to the ground after being struck by lightning 30 years later. It was later restored in 128 CE. Much of this information is found through painstaking archaeological work and historical records.The centres of other European cities like Athens and Pompeii also have carefully preserved sites for archaeological digs.In Kathmandu, the dabali across the Nautale Darbar, Basantapur has two chaitya more than 1m below current ground level. In front of the Kumari Ghar in Kathmandu Darbar Square, workers came across the finial of a <a href="https://youtu.be/w6oor-FChfs" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chiba</a> while building a road 15 years ago. This finial is still visible and the area has been encased in metal bars. These sites have also shown how the ground level has risen in Kathmandu over the centuries after being built over.Ranjitkar says the dabali was actually a part of the palace before the 1934 earthquake. The houses there were damaged, but instead of repairing them, the palace complex was restructured, leaving the area open to make it easier for Prime Minister Judda Shamsher to manoeuvre his car. There were other <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/kathmandus-temple-restoration-after-1934-quake/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">subtle and not-so-subtle changes to the Darbar Squares</a> after the 1934 earthquake.Read Also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/kathmandus-temple-restoration-after-1934-quake/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Kathmandu's temple restoration after 1934 quake</a>, Sahina ShresthaKathmandu Valley has a history of earthquakes every 60-70 years. Early history of the Valley has been known from textual sources like inscriptions from 4th century CE onwards, manuscript colophons after 8th century CE, and archives like the <a href="https://archive.org/details/GopalarajaVamsavaliDhanavajraVajracaryaAndKamalP..Malla/page/n7/mode/2up">Gopālarājavaṃśāvalī</a>.  These chronicles provide a regular recording of earthquakes including those in 1224, 1255, 1260, 1344, 1408, 1618, 1767, 1823, 1833, 1834, 1869, 1916 and 1934 – and prove the contention of seismologists about the Himalayan tectonics. While the accounts of earlier earthquakes are generalised, there are more details available for the earthquakes of 1833 and 1934.After the 1934 earthquake, the Bhandarkhal garden in the backyard of Patan Darbar was used to deposit debris from the palace complex and nearby areas. For years, no one cared to clean up the rubble and the garden lay dilapidated as the palace itself was used for government offices.When <a href="http://archive.nepalitimes.com/blogs/kundadixit/2011/04/05/797/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">KVPT was working to restore the Bhandarkhal pond</a> in Patan Darbar Square in 2009, it discovered that the ground level of the area before the 1934 earthquake was much lower. The pond was in a dilapidated condition. There was a brick wall on the upper level that was built after the 1934 earthquake to contain the debris deposited in the garden. While working on the pond the team discovered the original base of the outer wall of the pond.“This gave us an idea of the historic pre-1934 ground level, so we cleared up the entire garden to preserve that,” says Ranjitkar. One can see how high the ground was after the 1934 earthquake by looking at the trees. The team built a substructure to support and preserve the trees that had grown over the raised area. While clearing up the debris, they also discovered ancient stone artefacts currently kept in the Patan Museum garden.Even after the restoration of pre-1934 level, one can see more layers underneath which could contain relics of debris from previous earthquakes. Says Ranjitkar: “When we excavated in Bhandarkhal garden, we found pockets of structure made of stone that were bigger than the ones that were in use at the time. This shows that there is a lot to learn about Kathmandu’s subsurface heritage.”After the 2015 earthquake, a team from Durham University in coordination with UNESCO and the Nepal government, conducted Ground Penetrating Radar Survey and geo-archaeological analysis of the three Darbar Square areas of Kathmandu Valley. It was determined that Kasthamandap which was thought to be a 12th century structure was actually built in the 7th century. The team also found that in all three palaces the subsurface level had been intruded by modern utilities like water, sewage and electric cables.The team has produced a provisional risk map of all three palace complexes highlighting possible archeological sites. The report has highlighted some areas in red as High Risk where there should be no intrusive development whatsoever.  Yellow areas are Moderate Risk where construction  should be avoided if possible, and Low Risk where development can take place but should be as non-intrusive as possible and fully reversible (see box).After the 2015 earthquake, UNESCO and the Department of Archaeology (DoA) also made an <a href="https://youtu.be/PstfEuTJmUA" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">emergency intervention at the Tashi Gomang Stupa (Mangal Bahudwar Chaitya) in Swayambhu</a>, where they found that inside the stucco stupa was another stupa with sculptures and terracotta closely resembling those found at Mahabouddha in Patan. This could indicate that the inner stupa could be from a similar timeframe.The discovery of the hidden chaitya could also prove that the practice of adding layers, creating a multi-shell structure – something characteristic of the larger mahachaitya – also occurred in smaller stupas.Kathmandu’s Handigaon is perhaps the best known site related to the Lichhavi era, and is considered to be the capital of the dynasty. The area has been studied a few times since the 1960s and many 1,300 year old terracotta figures and pottery have been found here, including an inscription dating back to King Amshuvarma.In 1989, an Italian team from ISMEO conducted an excavation at Satya Narayan temple in Handigaun which indicated that the earliest habitation activity in Kathmandu was in the 1st century BCE. Along with other archeological artefacts, a stone conduit dating back to 726 CE in the time of King Priya Varman was also discovered. A life-size stone statue of Jaya Varma was also discovered with an inscription dating back to the 2nd century CE from nearby Maligaun.Many scholars including conservation architect Sudarshan Raj Tiwari believe that the fabled Kailashkut Bhawan was in this area. This was Lichhavi King Amshuverma’s palace built in 598 CE, and so big that Chinese monk Xuanzang who visited Kathmandu at the time chronicled that its upper chamber could hold 1,000 people.“When we were looking for Kailashkut Bhawan, we found traces of archeological deposits inside the Balmandir complex. We are not sure if it is indeed the historical structure, but we also do not know if it is not,” says Tiwari. "Archeologists think that small traces aren't enough proof of anything, they need an entire wall to say that a building was there. But that is not the case because a lot of these places have been disturbed."However, Handigaun is being rapidly built up with residential houses and office blocks. The DoA has said there are traces of the ancient palace in Handigaun but has not moved to protect the site.Adds Tiwari: “The first thing that needs to be done is building restrictions in archaeological sites. We have been telling the government to control construction in Handigaun for years but nothing has happened. When we did the ground radar survey recently, we had to do it on the road.”Even there, the team discovered that the areas under the ground had been disturbed with water pipes and other cable conduits.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111410110/6372044e9c7e80680e0b2855jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="900" height="574"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Handigaun is not an isolated case. In 1984, while constructing the subway at <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/water-of-the-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bhotahiti</a>, an ancient system with four water conduits was discovered. One of the conduits which was facing east had an inscription dating back to 596 CE saying it was constructed by Bibhu Varman during the rule of King Amshuvarma. The other three facing west and north were from the Malla era. Water was still flowing from the spouts when they were unearthed.But instead of preserving them, the municipality extracted the stone water spouts and stored them in the National Museum in Chhauni. The area was build over with an underpass that no one uses, but water is still seeping out through the concrete from this ancient system.Bhotahiti was among the seven water spouts in the area, and locals say it was first buried during the expansion of Tundikhel by the Ranas in the 1880s.Some 80m north from Bhotahiti towards Jamal is another sunken water spout called Jhanga Hiti which was covered over in 1981 after a local football team got permission to build its clubhouse over the historic site. The lower levels of the building now have shops while the football club has offices and meeting halls on the upper floors.Locals also say that another sunken water spout lies buried under the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) building east of Ratna Park.“History is layered, both metaphorically and literally,” says heritage documentarian and activist Alok Siddhi Tuladhar. “While it is understandable that things were destroyed during the Rana regime, it is sad that the same happened and continues to happen when we have people’s representatives running the government.”Read Also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/water-of-the-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Water of the ages</a>, Alok Siddhi TuladharWhen it comes to conservation of these sites, ownership also plays an important role. Ancient pottery and terracotta have been found when digging foundations of buildings in Handigaun. Tiwari says that because people do not want to be bothered with delays in construction, they never report the finds.In 1989, an inscription dating 536 of the Licchavi era was discovered in Baluwagaun near Gokarna which mentioned the presence of a Rajbihar as well as a village, making the area of archeological significance.Archaeologist Prakash Darnal remembers that a house was being built over the find, and when the Village Development Committee was asked to stop construction, officials said nothing could be done because it was private property. A stone water conduit was found while digging the foundation of a private house in Hattisar, and that construction also could not be stopped.Heritage experts say public awareness as well as political will is necessary to save Kathmandu’s historical sites both beneath the ground as much as above the ground.“We explore and excavate to see if there is anything in the subsurface. But once it is done, it doesn’t mean the job is finished,” says Sudarshan Tiwari. “The reports have to be accessible, and in a language that is understandable by general public. This way people will become more aware about the value of protection.“The government then has to implement the recommendations and specify the limitations. Everyone needs to take the conservation of these sites seriously,” he adds.Read Also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/opinion/where-siddhartha-gautam-walked/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Where Siddhartha Gautam walked</a>, Robin Coningham<h2>What is beneath Kathmandu's Darbar Squares?</h2><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111410110/637204519c7e80680e0b2856jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="458"><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111410110/637204549c7e80680e0b2857jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="476">Provisional risk map for Kathmandu Darbar Square (left) and Bhaktapur Darbar Square (right). Source: POST-DISASTER URBAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION IN THE KATHMANDU VALLEY WORLD HERITAGE PROPERTYArchaeological investigation of the Kathmandu Darbar Square area by UNESCO, Durham University and the Nepal government after the 2015 earthquake classified the World Heritage Site into three zones for protection of subsurface relics of archaeological significance. It recommended:Red ‘High Risk’ areas contain the most important archaeological remains at the site and are of significance not only to understand the development of a specific Darbar Square, but also the wider Kathmandu Valley and beyond. There should be no further development in these areas, and any existing modern structures should wherever possible be removed.Yellow ‘Moderate Risk’ areas contain (or may contain) archaeological remains that can inform us about the development of a specific Darbar Square. Development in these areas should be kept to a minimum, in accordance with an Archaeological Watching Brief.<figure><img src="https://superdesk-pro-c.s3.amazonaws.com/sd-nepalitimes/2022111410110/637204569c7e80680e0b2858jpeg.jpg" alt="" width="609" height="860"><figcaption> </figcaption></figure>Green ‘Low Risk’ areas contain minor or no archaeological remains, which may be able to inform us about the development of a specific Darbar Square. Development in these areas is possible, but should be undertaken in accordance with an Archaeological Watching Brief.

Sahina Shrestha

The historic Kathmandu beneath our feet

Nepal’s only international aviation gateway, at Kathmandu airport, will cut night-time operation hours to allow construction of taxiways, and airlines have been told to curtail flights. This is expected to lead to more than normal chaos during the height of peak autumn and spring tourist seasons at an airport that is congested even at the best of times. The airport will close from 10PM to 8AM from 8 November-31 March 2025. The taxiways will now connect to the thresholds at both ends of the runway, making the airport more efficient in handling higher frequencies of landings and takeoffs. The parallel taxiway extension will allow international flights to land every 4 minutes instead of the current every 7 minutes. At present planes have to wait to land until a plane taking off backtracks along the runway.&nbsp; Kathmandu is Nepal’s only airport with international operations, and it has only one runway that is only one way in from the south over the mountains. With the taxiway improvement, the airport will be able to handle 42 aircraft landings and takeoffs per hour — double the current capacity.&nbsp; The Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN) has been trying to entice international airlines to also start flying to and from the other two international airports at Pokhara and Bhairawa (Lumbini) by slashing landing and handling charges. But so far only Nepal Airlines operates a weekly flight to Bhairawa from Kuala Lumpur.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241018161016_046569e53d1d66cd445cc66c697c0ef724810aec9f54bdf827481e3cd6b80c32.jpg" data-media-id="editor_0" data-image-id="20241018161016_046569e53d1d66cd445cc66c697c0ef724810aec9f54bdf827481e3cd6b80c32" data-rendition-name="original" width="2356" height="1134" loading="lazy" alt="Kathmandu airport expansion"> <figcaption>Kathmandu Airport Expansion plan with extension of taxiways to the thresholds of runways 02 and 20 that will limit airport operations from 8 November 2024 - 31 March 2025. Areas in blue are existing structures, including the international terminal which in future will be the domestic airport, and the new international terminal near the north end of the runway,</figcaption> </figure>   <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241018121028_6e17cc2ee87c1b02d78cb54905825b7aa15299b7a00f5eddb01a59579ab85c1a.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="20241018121028_6e17cc2ee87c1b02d78cb54905825b7aa15299b7a00f5eddb01a59579ab85c1a" data-rendition-name="original" width="1353" height="1328" loading="lazy" alt="Kathmandu airport NT"> </figure>  CAAN has reportedly told international airlines to cut their flight frequency to Kathmandu citing the shorter operation hours and has told budget airlines to shift some of their flights to Pokhara or Bhairawa, or face cuts. Many airlines currently operate regular flights to and from Kathmandu between 10PM and 8AM: Air Arabia to Sharjah, Fly Dubai to Dubai, Jazeera Airways to Kuwait, Cathay Pacific to Hong Kong, Singapore Airlines, several Nepal Airlines flights, and one of four daily flights by Qatar Airways to Doha. Jazeera Airways, FlyDubai, and Thai AirAsia have applied and got permission from CAAN to begin regular flights to Bhairawa’s Gautam Buddha International Airport. Starting 9 November, FlyDubai will start making a stopover in Bhairawa before flying on to Kathmandu. Immigration, customs and security are all fully functional in Bhairawa. In Kathmandu, the next phase of the airport upgrade includes converting the current international terminal for domestic operations, the construction of a new international terminal where the domestic departure area is now, as well as moving the hangars and the Nepal Army Air Wing to the eastern side of the runway. The apron area will also double its parking space for widebody jets. This is part of a Airport Capacity Enhancement Project that was initially funded through a $80 million loan from the Asian Development Bank (ADB), and the entire masterplan is expected to cost $800 million. This project is the latest upgrade to Nepal’s only international airport since it saw its first flight in 1949. The current international and domestic terminals are too small to handle the current annual traffic volume of 8.5 million passengers a year that is growing at 20% a year.

Kathmandu airport to cut flight hours

As Kathmandu becomes more congested and polluted, and with remote online work becoming the norm, many professional Nepalis are planning to retire in Pokhara, or move there.&nbsp; With its stunning mountain panorama, balmy winters and proximity to a profusion of wilderness areas, builders are responding to this demand with new townhouses, housing development and apartments. One such block of flats is the 10-storey <a href="https://sungavaapartment.com/">Sungava Apartment</a> located at Phulbari above the Seti River, near the point where it flows into and under Pokhara. The imposing structure near Manipal Hospital is almost complete, and on a recent visit the site was strewn with huge boulders unearthed while digging the foundation.&nbsp; The Seti brought down these boulders during a gigantic flood that geologists estimate happened 800 years ago when a chunk of Annapurna IV broke off and ploughed into the glacier below. Today, Sungava (means ‘orchid’) sits safely on a high terrace, 100m above the blue-green Seti and commands a view of Dhaulagiri, Annapurna South, Machapuchre, Annapurna III and IV.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024102411104_5f8fc736c86ea3c08d7bef43bb727081d3cc1a2caa55ae2b441717e6044de7e9.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="2024102411104_5f8fc736c86ea3c08d7bef43bb727081d3cc1a2caa55ae2b441717e6044de7e9" data-rendition-name="original" width="2016" height="1512" loading="lazy" alt="High living below the Himalaya NT"> </figure>  The soil here is conglomerate that has solidified like concrete, and the boulders were extracted by heavy earthmovers. It is intriguing to think that these metamorphic rocks as big as cars, rounded by glacial grinding, were once a part of a much higher Annapurna IV. Even for those with little interest in geology, Sungava is an ideal place to contemplate the tectonic forces that pushed these peaks into the sky to be sculpted into delicate shapes by wind, snow, earthquake and avalanche over millions of years. The view of the Himalayan panorama from Sungava’s many balconies are breathtaking when not obscured by clouds, or the haze that drifts in from across the southern border. On most days, just watching the towering pyramid of Machapuchre (Tamu name: कतासुँ क्लिको) play hide and seek with the clouds is mesmerising. There are rocks aplenty at Phulbari, and it is probably the flowers that grew along the flat terraces e that gave the place its flowery name. The boulders will hopefully be turned into a rock garden while landscaping. An nearby restaurant complex is making the best use of the stones in its design, using flat rocks as outdoor benches and tables. Sungava was designed by the husband-wife architect team of Deepak Sherchan and Jyoti Joshi of <a href="https://thedarkmermaidamarbshrestha.blogspot.com/2013/12/creative-builders-collaborative-cbc.html">Creative Builders Collaborative (CBC)</a>, which also built Heritage Plaza, Indreni Apartment and numerous other projects in Nepal. Sadbhavana retains CBC’s trademark Newari-style masonry and here it borrows from the orange brickwork of the old town of Pokhara, integrating it with modern design elements. A few of those heritage houses are still standing in Ganesh Tole and Ram Krishna Tole in Pokhara’s old quarter.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024102411108_5eb64a4885961b6d30781cefeb1e8a313da313ac5227c7a66b60f0c7d48d6fab.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="2024102411108_5eb64a4885961b6d30781cefeb1e8a313da313ac5227c7a66b60f0c7d48d6fab" data-rendition-name="original" width="1362" height="595" loading="lazy" alt="High living below the Himalaya NT"> </figure>  About 400m from the apartment past a bend on the river, and down below three tiers of terraces in the canyon is a suspension bridge. Below it, the Seti is still swollen with post-monsoon flow as it tumbles away in a hurry to head down south.&nbsp; Back at the apartment, it is quiet, far away from the hubbub of Lakeside a 15 minute drive away, and in the lap of greenery. There are 52 units at Sungava and it already has a close-knit prospective community of professionals, including doctors, publishers, engineers, and businesspeople from the renewable energy and IT sectors.&nbsp; Some residents say they opted for a second home in Pokhara to make it a ‘base camp’ to explore the Annapurnas with its many hiking trails made newly accessible with new roads. With the NRN citizenship law, overseas Nepalis can now also buy the flats. &nbsp; The floor plans include options for north and south-facing 3-bedroom apartments with verandas, and the facility has underground parking has EV charging, heated pool, sauna and gym. There are still some unsold apartments with panoramic views of the mountains and one can imagine oneself at the kitchen with its huge window, humming a ditty while preparing breakfast: “खाना पकाउँ हिमाल हेरेर...”

High living below the Himalaya

When the United Nations held its Summit of the Future at its headquarters in New York in September, many world leaders, including Nepal’s Prime Minister K P Oli, highlighted the effect of climate breakdown in increasing the frequency and intensity of natural disasters. What did not get as much attention was the long term impact of the climate crisis on food production. In fact, heat stress, weather extremes and the consequences on rain-fed agriculture is already being felt worldwide, undermining the chances of the <a href="https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/">UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)</a> being met by 2030.&nbsp; The SDG’s 17 targets commit countries like Nepal to reduce poverty and inequality, end malnutrition, protect the natural environment, and ensure that citizens all enjoy health, justice and prosperity without leaving anyone behind.&nbsp; However, besides the impact of climate breakdown on agricultural production, in Nepal the area under cultivation is impacted by urban expansion, falling productivity and the need for expensive inputs like fertiliser and pesticides.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241019041052_626413c5baf4dae407ac9579231b41daeb51510aa636b75aeb7489d94cca6a62.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="20241019041052_626413c5baf4dae407ac9579231b41daeb51510aa636b75aeb7489d94cca6a62" data-rendition-name="original" width="999" height="1500" loading="lazy" alt="urban agriculture in Kathmandu"> <figcaption>Kathmandu's urban sprawl is eating into its fertile cultivable lands. Photo: TAYLOR MASON</figcaption> </figure>  Now, a new study led by Nepali researcher Prajal Pradhan at the University of Groningen in The Netherlands looks at how urban agriculture may offer a solution to falling food production and meeting SDG targets. The researchers evaluated 1,450 publications exploring the contributions of urban agriculture with both positive and negative effects, and published their findings in the journal Cells Report Sustainability. Urban agriculture can help achieve 17 SDGs, positively influencing 81 targets. However, it could also undermine 51 goals.&nbsp; Read also: <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/here-now/the-vanishing-land">The vanishing land</a>, Taylor Mason “Urban agriculture offers immense potential for sustainable development, but realising this potential depends crucially on adopting practices that minimise its adverse effects while maximising its benefits,” Pradhan explains. Urban agriculture can substantially enhance urban food security, provide employment to the urban poor, serve as ground water recharge in built-up areas, and preserve open spaces that can serve as safe havens during disasters like earthquakes. However, it also presents problems like the potential health risks from contamination and the need for expensive inputs. &nbsp; “Urban agriculture plays a definitive role in advancing the SDGs, but achieving this requires tailored, context-specific solutions that address the unique challenges of different regions,” says Yuanchao Hu of Wuhan University in China and who is a researcher at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. “But it needs equitable access and rigorous management of environmental risks.”&nbsp; Rapid urbanisation is eating into Nepal’s most fertile agricultural land, which means farming in remaining open spaces inside cities can be a viable alternative, especially as food prices rise.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241019041052_7b7c9413086226fbdc630d45acf772cfa1ced77a8970b9056ec5ec7e5226fdf8.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="20241019041052_7b7c9413086226fbdc630d45acf772cfa1ced77a8970b9056ec5ec7e5226fdf8" data-rendition-name="original" width="1500" height="999" loading="lazy" alt="urban agriculture in Kathmandu"> <figcaption>A vegetable patch in between new houses in Thimi. Photo: TAYLOR MASON</figcaption> </figure>  “The conversion of Nepal’s most fertile land into cities is a severe problem,” Pradhan told Nepali Times. “Crop cultivation, horticulture, agroforestry, beekeeping, livestock rearing, or aquaculture can all be farming activities within and around cities.”&nbsp; The study makes recommendations for sustainable practices that build on the positive aspects of urban agriculture while mitigating the downsides, thereby promoting more resilient cities in future. Research shows that urban agriculture has been helping many countries attain SDG targets by enhancing food security and biodiversity while helping education and preservation of open spaces.&nbsp; Indeed, many farmers from the hinterland who have settled in Kathmandu Valley or other urban areas of the country have been practicing urban agriculture, leasing neighbourhood patches or cultivating roof gardens both out of necessity because of inflation and falling income to grow their own food, and also as a fulfilling hobby. Saurav Dhakal, a sustainability advocate with Story Cycle and now research fellow at the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand, says there are socio-economic and environmental benefits of urban agriculture. “It provides benefits to all urban dwellers, regardless of their income status,” says Dhakal, “families get fresh food, and there are many other benefits like water retention, heat regulation and biodiversity. These are all public goods, so special government incentives may be needed.” It is not unusual to see vegetable patches and even paddy fields within inner city Kathmandu where an older generation of farmers are using available fertile land and <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/Nepali-Times-Buzz/rooftop-gardens-kathmandu,1415">roof gardens to produce fresh, nutritious food </a>to reduce their dependence on food items that have to be bought after being trucked in from large distances.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2024101905100_1291ce98dbbb8caed8702ac4b1d469b3e13016d7ecaaf3bfd5f91c974d3c0c77.jpg" data-media-id="editor_5" data-image-id="2024101905100_1291ce98dbbb8caed8702ac4b1d469b3e13016d7ecaaf3bfd5f91c974d3c0c77" data-rendition-name="original" width="1500" height="999" loading="lazy" alt="urban agriculture in Kathmandu"> <figcaption>An older generation of farmers are using any available fertile land to continue farming but it is getting more and more difficult. Photo: TAYLOR MASON </figcaption> </figure>  Nepal’s urban population grew rapidly from only 3.6% in 1991 to 25% today. There is large outmigration from the mountains to peri-urban areas of the Tarai, to Kathmandu Valley and Pokhara, with many young men then moving abroad for work. Kathmandu Valley’s population has swelled to nearly 3 million, and is growing at 6.5% a year. Dilip Shrestha, 71, used to work for Nepal Food Corporation, so he knew firsthand about inflation, shortages and vegetables with pesticide residue. So, when he designed his new house in Kathmandu, he built a spacious roof where he grows cucumber, ginger, garlic, coriander, onions, tomatoes, chili, beans, okra, pumpkin and lettuce. His family eats healthier, and he has reduced dependence on the market.&nbsp; The co-author of the Cell Reports Sustainability journal article, Daya Raj Subedi who is a PhD candidate at Beijing Forestry University, says urban agriculture also promotes inclusion and psycho-social wellbeing.&nbsp; He says, “A crucial finding of the study is the identification of opportunities and challenges associated with urban agriculture, it can promote sustainable transformation of society.” In Banepa, 55-year-old Bijaya Manandhar in her lifetime has watched the fertile farms of her neighbourhood that used to supply vegetables to Kathmandu, now completely built up with no open space left. The pandemic lockdown prompted her to turn to the family’s <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/banner/rooftop-agriculture-on-the-roof-of-the-world">ancestral livelihood by growing food</a> not on terrace farms, but on the roof terrace. Manandhar is now a part of <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/banner/rooftop-agriculture-on-the-roof-of-the-world%5C%5C">कौसी खेती र करेसाबारी क्रान्ती</a> (Rooftop Farming and Garden Revolution) which has an online membership of 52,000, and awards annual prizes to women who excel in urban agriculture.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241019041052_7257f5def8f823f35a799fa6f6825e153f2ffa406ac11325d4fe74049b79e96d.jpg" data-media-id="editor_8" data-image-id="20241019041052_7257f5def8f823f35a799fa6f6825e153f2ffa406ac11325d4fe74049b79e96d" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="736" loading="lazy" alt="urban agriculture in Kathmandu"> <figcaption>Rooftop farming is gaining popularity as a form of urban agriculture. </figcaption> </figure>   <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241019041052_beff1a4494ce896dd8fd383ee1f518e5448bcf7ea8bb138255391c7bcb9769ed.jpg" data-media-id="editor_9" data-image-id="20241019041052_beff1a4494ce896dd8fd383ee1f518e5448bcf7ea8bb138255391c7bcb9769ed" data-rendition-name="original" width="4000" height="3000" loading="lazy" alt="urban agriculture in Kathmandu"> </figure>  Pradhan says the challenge now is to upscale such examples of successful urban agricultural practices so they support Neal’s efforts to meet SDG targets. He adds, “Crop cultivation around cities can be protected by land use plans and regulations. Promoting community-based agriculture, including rooftop gardens, requires community engagement and public-private partnerships across the food value chain.”&nbsp; Such support would accelerate the popularity of existing rooftop farming and community gardens in Kathmandu Valley, or kitchen garden initiatives in Pokhara, and building on traditional farming practices that are preserved and integrated into urban settings like in Bhaktapur and Banepa. In Lalitpur, the Women Entrepreneurship Facilitation Center promotes urban farming enhancing both sustainability and empowerment.&nbsp; Another co-author of the report, Yuanchao Hu from China says followup research of the team will aim to identify good practices in local urban agriculture practices. He adds, “There are examples of urban agriculture that optimise sustainability, ensuring that it remains a viable solution for cities globally while countries try to meet SDG targets.” Prajal Pradhan, Daya Raj Subedi, Kshitij Dahal, Yuanchao Hu, Prakriti Gurung, Sijal Pokharel, Sagar Kafle, Biplav Khatri, Sudeeksha Basyal, Monika Gurung, and Aruna Joshi. Urban Agriculture matters for sustainable development. Cell Reports Sustainability, 1:100217, 2024. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crsus.2024.100217] Prajal Pradhan (<a href="mailto:p.pradhan@rug.nl">p.pradhan@rug.nl</a>) This article is brought to you by <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/" target="_blank">Nepali Times</a>, in collaboration with <a href="https://inpsjapan.com/en/" target="_blank">INPS Japan</a> and <a href="https://sgi-peace.org/" target="_blank">Soka Gakkai International</a>, in consultative status with UN ECOSOC.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20240630110640_30c3782f9c09219bf1c249b51483a3cfb7a53a06d117d2aebd23ca7080d12758.jpg" data-media-id="editor_14" data-image-id="20240630110640_30c3782f9c09219bf1c249b51483a3cfb7a53a06d117d2aebd23ca7080d12758" data-rendition-name="original" width="680" height="103" loading="lazy" alt="SDG logo"> </figure>

Back to the land in the cities

The 700-year-old Lakshmi Narasingha temple in Bhaktapur houses a rare half-lion and half-human incarnation of Lord Vishnu carrying the Goddess Lakshmi. The temple was destroyed in the 1934 mega earthquake that killed 10,000 people and destroyed many monuments in Kathmandu Valley. It was rebuilt by a German project in the 1980s, but as a single-storey structure instead of its original two-tier pagoda design.&nbsp; With new findings from in-depth research, Bhaktapur municipality began re-restoring the temple in 2021, preserving its original architecture.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241017131016_2fae38cce543ad7b1f6de632feb3e212e08ed1acedd747830e949d7b8e878f18.jpg" data-media-id="editor_0" data-image-id="20241017131016_2fae38cce543ad7b1f6de632feb3e212e08ed1acedd747830e949d7b8e878f18" data-rendition-name="original" width="2048" height="1365" loading="lazy" alt="In with the old in Nepal NT"> </figure>  “Our temples and heritage sites hold deep meaning. It is disheartening to witness how often they lose their original elements, whether by design or accident,” explains Kumar Chawal of the Consumer Committee of Bhaktapur. “There is a need to preserve our architecture and protect its historical value for future generations. Otherwise, we risk losing a vital part of our identity.” The Laksmi Narsingha restoration is similar to the Bhai Dega temple in Patan Darbar Square which also collapsed in 1934, but was rebuilt with a Moghul-style dome by the Rana government at the time. Only two months before the 2015 earthquake, heritage conservationists had started to rebuild Bhai Dega as the original three-tier based on early photographs. But priorities shifted when four other temples in the square were brought down by the 7.8M earthquake on 25 April 2015.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241017131016_697ea707d9ad163be5de5f2efbf5b70d3cab771adcc22f0fae6bf937c6cb0130.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="20241017131016_697ea707d9ad163be5de5f2efbf5b70d3cab771adcc22f0fae6bf937c6cb0130" data-rendition-name="original" width="2048" height="1365" loading="lazy" alt="In with the old in Nepal NT"> </figure>  This showed how damage to monuments in Kathmandu Valley spanned from one earthquake to the next. Bhai Dega restoration remains half-complete to this day because money for its restoration ran out.&nbsp; Whereas Bhai Dega restoration was done by the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust with grants from western embassies and international foundations, in Bhaktapur it is the municipality itself that allocated the Rs30.7 million needed to restore the Lakshmi Narasingha temple. The expected date of completion is early 2025. The municipality and local communities are focusing on two main aspects: preserving the past and promoting localisation. The restoration team has designed a blueprint for the temple by using historical photographs and insights from older generations.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241017131016_182882fdc393c99e70d1d0490319e415229563666c4934e3a582426ebf00ca30.jpg" data-media-id="editor_2" data-image-id="20241017131016_182882fdc393c99e70d1d0490319e415229563666c4934e3a582426ebf00ca30" data-rendition-name="original" width="1200" height="560" loading="lazy" alt="In with the old in Nepal NT"> </figure>  “At first, the Lakshmi Narasingha temple had only one entrance, but during the demolition process, we uncovered the foundations of four doors. Now, we are restoring all of them. This is an example of how our ancient structures have changed over time, often without our knowledge,” says Chawal. “Constructing temples is not like building houses. They carry historical and spiritual values, which is why they hold a special place in our hearts,” he adds. By replicating ancient design elements and rebuilding the temple as accurately as possible to its original form, the team has stayed true to Bhaktapur’s soul. But the restoration also revived ancient techniques that were in danger of being forgotten, generating employment for woodcarvers, masons, and contractors. The community of Bhaktapur’s Gahiti neighbourhood near the famous Nyatapola Temple has also set aside specific days for locals to volunteer in the reconstruction work. This has encouraged young people to take pride in ownership of their heritage. Families have also supported the effort by donating funds for bells, the temple pinnacle, and other structural features to the temple.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20241017131016_db850ec0c084cdbe54f65bee92dad2ad8122d20fd60ec87ec086fbb9d2f72bd6.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="20241017131016_db850ec0c084cdbe54f65bee92dad2ad8122d20fd60ec87ec086fbb9d2f72bd6" data-rendition-name="original" width="2048" height="1365" loading="lazy" alt="In with the old in Nepal NT"> </figure>  “I feel at peace knowing I have contributed my sweat to restoring this temple,” said one volunteer. “It is our duty to preserve our temples and heritage. The Nyatapola area will look magical once this temple is completed.” Community mobilisation is a long-standing tradition in Bhaktapur. In the past, locals have actively participated in the restoration of other temples in the city, such as Bhairav and Nyatapola fostering a strong sense of ownership. This collective engagement has not only been crucial in preserving the city's historical monuments but also in strengthening the bond between local communities and their heritage, says officials at the municipality. While securing funding is essential, and the municipality showed it values heritage conservation, the Lakshmi Narasingha restoration is proof that active involvement and sense of responsibility of the local community is as important, if not more. Local involvement also means that the monuments will be cared for into the future, When locals take ownership of these efforts, the restored monuments are not only protected in the present but are also cared for in the future.