Large mammals and exotic plants get all the attention, and conservation efforts are often directed at protecting them. Who who protects our mosses? This often-neglected group of non-vascular lower plants called bryophytes that include mosses, liverworts and hornworts help in decomposition, regulate nutrients and have high water retention capacity. Bryophytes are called ‘amphibians' of the plant kingdom because they are often found at the intersection of land and water. Although they are technically plants, they do not have distinct roots, stems and leaves. And although they are entirely adapted to the land by their vegetative structure, they require water for fertilisation. There are about 960 genera and 20,000 species of bryophytes globally, with more diversity in tropical climates. In Asia, neglected as it is, India has the maximum number of bryophytes followed by China. Nepal has about 323 genera and 1,217 species, but there has not been a comprehensive study on bryoflora even though the plants are an integral part of the mountain ecosystem and show their dominance throughout the forest floor.&nbsp; Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/the-malayan-rainforest-and-its-rare-flower">The Malayan rainforest and its rare flower</a>, Hum Gurung  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20230824090836_e2da5c2fd0e8bb96615f37c4cc25cbaff83d361ebf12f80ea9ee9e76b90e84ea.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="20230824090836_e2da5c2fd0e8bb96615f37c4cc25cbaff83d361ebf12f80ea9ee9e76b90e84ea" data-rendition-name="original" width="1536" height="2048" loading="lazy" alt="Lets not forget moss NT"> <figcaption>Sphagnum nepalense</figcaption> </figure>  Bryophytes often act as primary colonisers and initiate succession in terrestrial ecosystems. Their extraordinary potential of water retention is more effective than that of trees and means that the world’s 25% organic carbon is locked up in the bog moss sphagnum in living and dead forms. Nepal’s leading bryologist Nirmala Pradhan in her seminal 2011 study noted that the Sauteria spongiosa species had disappeared from Chandragiri. Indeed, we do not have a complete updated checklist of bryophyte flora in Nepal, and do not know their ecological status. The northern slopes in the temperate forests are considered especially rich in bryophytes. There are many endemic bryophytes found only in Nepal such as Nordia nepalensis, Entodon nepalensis, Diplophyllum trollii and Sphagnum nepalensis. Ninety-two bryophyte species from Nepal have been on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) since 2000. Bryophytes are threatened due to both anthropogenic deforestation and climatic causes. Unpredictable rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, increasing temperature, changing land use, wildfires, forest fragmentation and urbanisation are all risk factors. A visit to the Flanders Moss Nature Reserve in Scotland this year was a lesson in how bryophytes also need to be conserved, and is an internationally important habitat currently undergoing active restoration. Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/multimedia/garden-walls">Garden walls</a>, Sheilin Teo  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20230824090828_fee498cdee6d09321fe88cc26e02fd144d99106dba30ce6412ea2af8af5851bb.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="20230824090828_fee498cdee6d09321fe88cc26e02fd144d99106dba30ce6412ea2af8af5851bb" data-rendition-name="original" width="750" height="1624" loading="lazy" alt="Let’s not forget mosses NT"> <figcaption>The Flanders Moss Nature Reserve in Scotland.</figcaption> </figure>  The eastern part of Flanders Moss is the largest raised bog in Europe to remain in a predominantly near-natural state. The Flanders Moss Natural Reserve not only provides an important habitat for wildlife, but also plays a key role in carbon sequestration. The bog is composed of an underlayer of sphagnum mosses, on top of which grows heather, cross-leaved heath and cotton grass. The bog is home to many species of invertebrates, especially moths. Red and roe deer are known to visit the reserve, and otters make use of the network of ditches to pass through the area. The reserve is also home to many species of reptiles and amphibians. After being designated as a part of a special area of conservation in 2005, Flanders Moss, which also includes four other raised bogs, has become a site of scientific interest. Scottish Natural Heritage purchased rights on the site in 1995 and it is designated a Category IV protected area by the IUCN. The British Bryological Society (BBS) is celebrating its 100 years this year. It was inaugurated in 1923 as the successor to the Moss Exchange Club formed in 1896 to accumulate specimens in private collections, many of which are now in institutional herbaria. Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/save-nepal-s-orchids">Save Nepal’s orchids</a>, Reshu Bashyal  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20230824090828_7ce5c4a2a0e821c52d348039fd28d9baa26795bb5c440235a5f4cd9ebb2a4998.jpg" data-media-id="editor_5" data-image-id="20230824090828_7ce5c4a2a0e821c52d348039fd28d9baa26795bb5c440235a5f4cd9ebb2a4998" data-rendition-name="original" width="2165" height="1000" loading="lazy" alt="Let’s not forget mosses NT"> <figcaption>A frog in the Flanders Moss Nature Reserve.</figcaption> </figure>  The modern BBS has an entirely different focus on bryophyte conservation, recording plant distributions, supporting, and disseminating scientific research, teaching the next generations of bryologists, and spreading the message of the environmental value and significance of the bryophytes to landowners, conservation bodies and the wider public. With its wide diversity of mosses, Nepal could also conserve its unique and endangered bryophytes, and teach school and college students about their ecological importance — especially their role as carbon sinks, water retention and ecosystem regulation. Something else we can immediately do is explore endemic and the IUCN red-listed bryophytes in Nepal because if we do not even know they are there, we cannot protect them. The Department of Plant Resources Ilam has initiated the conservation of an endemic moss Sphagnum nepalense at Maipokhari. We need multiple such attempts for the conservation of bryoflora in Nepal. Read also: <a href="https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/wildflower-app-celebrates-nepal-s-flora">Wildflower app celebrates Nepal’s flora</a>, Elizabeth A Byers Achyut Tiwari is Plant Ecologist at the Central Department of Botany at Tribhuvan University.

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Let’s not forget mosses

The dawn air in Muktikot is dewy as the sun sets over the horizon in the mountains of western Nepal. A sad farewell song drifts across the village from a mud plastered house.&nbsp; Rani BK sings a half melody, half lament: “I feel like my own hands are being cut off as you leave.” She is bidding farewell to her youngest brother, 37-year-old Ranne, his wife Akashe. They are going to Bangalore in India to find work. Neighbours gather quietly in the gathering light, some wiping their eyes, others joining in song. “Please, don’t cry,” Ranne says softly. “These tears will haunt us on the journey.” Migration is not new to Muktikot, but the tears are. For decades, nearly every household here has sent its men to India every winter to work. They return in spring to plant their crops.&nbsp; What is new is that women like Akashe BK are now also going, and for longer periods. The couple is leaving their two of their children behind, and will be away for at least five years.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260203130224_f8d2d5980da1f3c1e22944003969d64cffd10f280c523ab207f983ef42b4cb9b.jpg" data-media-id="editor_0" data-image-id="20260203130224_f8d2d5980da1f3c1e22944003969d64cffd10f280c523ab207f983ef42b4cb9b" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1067" loading="lazy" alt="women migrating"> <figcaption>Daughter and son left behind with Rani BK after departure.</figcaption> </figure>  Ranne has been a daily wage labourer since he was 17, moving across Nepal and different parts of northern India. This journey is different — it will be to southern India.&nbsp; He had borrowed Rs50,000 from a local lender to cover the travel cost, hoping to recoup it from his earnings as a security guard. Aakashe plans to work as a household helper.&nbsp; “We would not go if we have a choice,” Aakase says quietly, her eyes fixed on “We are forced to leave our children. We cannot afford to educate them, there is little to eat here, no water, no work, no electricity.” Their daughter Sitala, 12, and son Dipson, 10, put auspicious red tika on their parents’ foreheads. Aakase sobs as she asks relatives to look after their children and their house.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260203130224_a6316df8ff8a7f95d963396f2a01a7549dca3dcc1ac0364763eecd9f29b7bed7.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="20260203130224_a6316df8ff8a7f95d963396f2a01a7549dca3dcc1ac0364763eecd9f29b7bed7" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1067" loading="lazy" alt="women migrating"> <figcaption>Departure of Ranne BK.</figcaption> </figure>  “We may return by the time you finish school,” Ranne tells Sitala, who is in Grade 6. Sitala stands forlorn by herself, not saying anything. Across Muktikot, women who once stayed back to raise children and manage households now join their husbands in India to support families in these remote mountains of western Nepal.&nbsp; Unnati BK, 30, and her husband Barune BK decided to migrate to India after their home was damaged by landslides in 2021 and the family was nearly killed. The arid farms did not produce enough food as rains failed. “Nothing grows here,” says Unnati, who is also leaving for Bangalore with her husband, along with Ranne and Akashe.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260203130228_50db0f2d1827584bc9aa6d19d7d79b385ea1211192ccfc1f1147b245c941912e.jpg" data-media-id="editor_2" data-image-id="20260203130228_50db0f2d1827584bc9aa6d19d7d79b385ea1211192ccfc1f1147b245c941912e" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1067" loading="lazy" alt="women migrating"> <figcaption>Unnati BK</figcaption> </figure>  After 54 families lost their homes in landslides four years ago, the district administration has set aside Rs500,000 for families including Unnati and Barune. But although nearly complete, they have received only Rs175,000 each. Unnati had realised and told her husband that if they stayed in the village, their sorrows would multiply. So they planned to leave, hoping that a little extra hardship in India would allow them to pay for the education of their three children, who are 11, eight, and six years old. “We chose Bangalore because relatives told us it is easy to find jobs there for both men and women,” Barune says. They plan to leave their children with Unnati’s parents for now, and later send them 250km away to Kailali to attend school.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260203130228_3ee37136e936fe7dba7d1320452c83a17f08805663a7cbb4b6efa986c79147ed.jpg" data-media-id="editor_3" data-image-id="20260203130228_3ee37136e936fe7dba7d1320452c83a17f08805663a7cbb4b6efa986c79147ed" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1067" loading="lazy" alt="women migrating"> <figcaption>Landslide four years ago caused 54 families to lose their homes.</figcaption> </figure>  More than 75 couples from 350 households in Muktikot have left for cities like Mumbai and Bangalore in the past three years alone, leaving behind their children either with their in-laws or in the Tarai cities where they go to school. Ajay Kumar BK, chair of the rural municipality of Muktikot says, “There is a clear intention to leave the village altogether.” &nbsp; Diksha BK, 25, has three sons aged six, three, and one. Her husband Dhirjan works in Surkhet. She and her husband have given up on Muktikot, saying they see no future there. DISASTER-PRONE Muktikot is populated mostly by Dalit families, and used to be named Dumkot after a derogatory term used by higher caste people for Dalits. During the Maoist conflict, many Dalit boys joined the guerrillas and the rebels renamed it Muktikot, meaning ‘freedom’.&nbsp; The village clings to a steep mountain flank wrinkled with rain-fed farm terraces. Many of the men who have left for India have never come back, and now even the women are leaving. The 2020 Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan of Bajura identifies Muktikot as a disaster-prone area, making its rain-fed agriculture vulnerable to droughts. The denuded slopes above are at risk of landslides.&nbsp; The 2021 International Migration in Nepal report counted 13,482 people migrating to India from Bajura alone that year. There are an estimated 3.5 million Nepalis living and working in Nepal — mostly from the western mountains.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260203130228_df4f333c7a5bc0b0a7fd75ae6c2e9f02444a097fc5b13c24dc61a276ea6ac3ff.jpg" data-media-id="editor_4" data-image-id="20260203130228_df4f333c7a5bc0b0a7fd75ae6c2e9f02444a097fc5b13c24dc61a276ea6ac3ff" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1067" loading="lazy" alt="women migrating"> <figcaption>Houses being built under resettlement plan.</figcaption> </figure>  National Environment and Equity Development Society (NEEDS) Nepal found that 70% of households in Sudhurpaschim Province have had at least one member migrating to India at some point in their lives. “Female migration used to be low, but there is now an observable trend of women migrating for work from Sudhurpaschim,” says Prakash Madai of NEEDS Nepal. However, anthropologist Jeevan R Sharma says female migration is not new, what is different is the scale and duration of women migrants. Increasing demand for part-time household help in India makes it a pull-factor for Nepali women from the rural west to enter the informal workforce. “Women used to go only when opportunities arose, working for half a year to maximum two years, and frequently going back and forth,” says Sharma. “The potential rise is likely due to the need for greater income driven by rising cash-based expenses for health, education, food, and purchase of consumer goods.” COST OF LEAVING “Previously people struggled for basic needs, and we did not have the money or the roads to travel to Kathmandu, which is why most people went to India for manual work,” says Kartik Kami, 60, of the rural municipality. “Migration trends have changed because both men and women can make money washing, cooking, and cleaning in cities. Soon, there will be no one to conduct weddings or funerals, only children will remain.” While women from other parts of Nepal began participating in foreign employment three decades ago, women from traditional Sudurpaschim families are only now venturing into the Indian labour market. “This surge is filling a labour vacuum in India created when its domestic migrants shifted their focus to Gulf countries,” explains historian Yadab Devkota. Yet, research paints a social cost. A 2020 study found that children of migrant parents suffer loneliness and neglect due to the absence of parental care and love. Children fall back in studies, and girl children are burdened with excessive workload managing the household and siblings.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260203130232_e1e02cd082e7cbb77243103b2197fd1dfca75531bb9d6f518763afccb9ed452c.jpg" data-media-id="editor_5" data-image-id="20260203130232_e1e02cd082e7cbb77243103b2197fd1dfca75531bb9d6f518763afccb9ed452c" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1067" loading="lazy" alt="women migrating"> <figcaption>Sitala BK, daughter of Ranne and Aakashe.</figcaption> </figure>  The emotional toll is manifested in anxiety, stress, depression, and in some cases, suicide, especially for those whose mothers have migrated.&nbsp; “The significant shift towards couple migration is driven by families making difficult and high-cost decisions in the hopes of breaking the cycle of poverty,” says Arjun Kharel at the Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility (CESLAM ). “Migration remains primarily a strategy for subsistence rather than development, it is a calculated family decision made in the absence of local opportunities.” Migration to India remains largely invisible to the Nepal government. The country’s foreign employment framework does not extend to migrants going to India. And because they travel through the open border, they are not regulated by formal systems.&nbsp; There is no accurate count of how many Nepalis are working in India, or of Indians in Nepal. According to the Indian Population and Housing Census, there are 600,000 Nepalis working in India, but this is a gross underestimation.&nbsp; A study by Aapti Institute describes Nepali migrants in India as ‘liminal’ neither fully protected as citizens nor recognised as foreigners there, exposing them to exploitation and risk.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260203130232_14a613729f6ebb1db0bec63032cc78abe3087341680b2f88bc0ab4456621b012.jpg" data-media-id="editor_6" data-image-id="20260203130232_14a613729f6ebb1db0bec63032cc78abe3087341680b2f88bc0ab4456621b012" data-rendition-name="original" width="1600" height="1067" loading="lazy" alt="women migrating"> <figcaption>Ranne and Aakashe's last night at home.</figcaption> </figure>  “Nepali migrants in India are not covered by compensation if they fall sick and or if die, unlike migrants to other overseas destinations who can receive compensation of up to Rs700,000,” notes labour migration expert Saru Joshi. The recent draft National Labour Migration Policy 2025 of the Ministry of Labour, Employment, and Social Security offers a flicker of hope for migrants to India with provisions for welfare, social security, and mental health support for families left behind. The draft also mandates better data collection of the movement of people.&nbsp; It is unlikely that these initiatives will make any difference to the people who remain in Muktikot. Many like Ranne and Akashe are likely to go to India for work. “If I had only two or three children, I would take my wife to India too,” says Jaya BK, 46. But he has seven children, including newborn twins, whom he has stayed behind to help his wife look after this time, rather than leaving for Uttarakhand in winter like he usually does.&nbsp; With the support of Internews' Earth Journalism Network.

Mass migration from Muktikot

The car’s trunk was crammed with boxes and suitcases, almost to the roof, and I was just waiting for the inevitable heart-wrenching screech or thud from underneath as I feathered on the accelerator, trying to cross through the infamous Daunne uphill section of the East-West Highway in an MPV.&nbsp; But to my surprise, the ground clearance of 170mm did not fail. Daunne, roughly 15km long, is the landslide prone ridge between Narayanghat and Butwal section, which is perennially affected by traffic jams, thanks to ongoing (and never ending) road expansion. Traffic jams here can be tens of kilometres long. On a November 2025 trip to Bhairawa it was dry enough to wade through the dreaded Daunne where the choice on the ‘road’ is either mud or dust (or both).&nbsp; The BYD M6 MPV EV borrowed for the journey claimed a range of 440km and 580L of space at the back in an almost 4.7m long form factor.&nbsp; On board were two family members and my five-year-old dog, Kulfi (pictured) who needed frequent stretch breaks for his paws. Stopping to charge the car was most certainly not on my to-do list. Within the first 20km from Koteswor, there were already multiple DC chargers along the roadside. They were fast chargers usually between 30 to 60kWs capacities, meaning a charge to 80% would take on average less than an hour. Nepal now boasts over 1,200 charging stations, each station is often equipped with multiple charging guns. This was a stark contrast to the harsh reality of charger anxiety I faced a couple of years in our family car, the Hyundai Kona. Back then, on the way back from Pokhara there was only a single charging gun at River Side Resort in Kurintar.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2026013104014_d36a1ed529caa0b67424699407da8b42b51f4a4b63dd6dbeb662b0ab513b77a8.jpg" data-media-id="editor_0" data-image-id="2026013104014_d36a1ed529caa0b67424699407da8b42b51f4a4b63dd6dbeb662b0ab513b77a8" data-rendition-name="original" width="2652" height="984" loading="lazy" alt="Page 5 map"> </figure>  These were only fast AC chargers of speeds up to 6kWs, unlike today’s much faster DC chargers. This meant the car would take multiple hours to hit the 80% mark -- and the charger would sometimes (shockingly, and without explanation) be out of operation. No one to ask questions, and no one to answer either. While I never needed to charge my EV on the way to Pokhara from Kathmandu, my precautionary nature never allowed me to climb into the Valley via Naubise without a charge. One bad accident, some sort of natural disaster, and you knew the roads would be clogged with traffic and shut down for at least a couple of hours.&nbsp; Fast forward to the present. My mind was at ease. Even if one of the charging stations was crowded, there was conveniently another one 15 minutes away. But the BYD M6 did not require any of that anyway.&nbsp; Not only did it traverse the rough highway from Kathmandu to Mugling, and then onward over the Daunne pass with ease but because the car was heavy and low, it handled high speeds and corners like a champ.&nbsp; Foot down on the accelerator and it climbed to triple digit speeds without breaking a sweat. Put your foot relatively harder on the brakes and it would equally shed its momentum, all the while being economical. After multiple quick stretch stops for Kulfi, and a proper one hour lunch break, I had arrived at Bhairawa before nightfall, still with around 100km of range left in the car and most importantly, with all the luggage intact.&nbsp;  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/2026013104018_1cc05d858d14f0b83fcf586c7270be003f462d60cd19934218e271d59fef3496.png" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="2026013104018_1cc05d858d14f0b83fcf586c7270be003f462d60cd19934218e271d59fef3496" data-rendition-name="original" width="1384" height="808" loading="lazy" alt="Bye-bye range anxiety NT"> </figure>  ROUNDTRIP A week later, my return trip to Kathmandu saw an additional passenger and even more luggage – but once again, I arrived back in Kathmandu with ease: both the M6 and Nepal’s charger infrastructure had exceeded my expectations and needs.&nbsp; This 600km drive to and from Bhairawa from the mountains around Kathmandu to the Tarai plains, with not-so-smooth hilly terrain in between, highlighted not only how far electric vehicles have evolved but also showed how far the charging infrastructure (once a major irritant during the Covid years) had come.&nbsp; EVs in Nepal are no longer niche products; they are available across budgets and segments, ranging in form factor from micro city commuters and family hatchbacks to compact SUVs, pickups, and even full-size MPVs.&nbsp; One noticeable improvement on the highways is that the charging infrastructure has grown from a scattered and company-installed. NEA units along major routes have now converted into full-fledged, round-the-clock networks that allow flexibility and convenience to those of us who like to enjoy our times on the road.&nbsp; What once felt like a gamble, now feels like momentum — and the road ahead for electric mobility in Nepal looks smoother. &nbsp;&nbsp; Arnav Upadhyay reviews automobiles and promotes road safety under the handle Casually Annoyed Driver on Youtube, Tiktok and IG and this monthly column Drive Line in Nepali Times.

Bye-bye range anxiety

On full-moon nights in October and the Nepali New Year in April, hundreds gather to worship at the sacred pond of Mai Pokhari in Ilam. According to legend, the pond was born thousands of years ago from the union of the holy Mai and Tamur rivers in eastern Nepal. Another story tells of an elderly couple whose death gave rise to a life-giving pond meant to quench human thirst. The nine corners of the pond are each believed to house a goddess capable of granting health, fertility, good harvests, and protection from landslides and storms. In every version, one message is constant: when people polluted the water, the goddess moved away. Fear of losing her protection still shapes how people treat the sacred water body today. Besides ponds, wetlands are areas that are saturated with water, permanently or seasonally, including marshes, swamps, and bogs – representing some of the world’s most biologically diverse ecosystems, with distinctive soil, plants and animals. In 2008, Mai Pokhari earned the status of a Ramsar site – a wetland of global importance – for its ecological significance.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260202020236_5fdcca89b06fcc0a2f2a7620931bc7fa1e932c72a5c1f5e083d4fd06287218b7.jpg" data-media-id="editor_0" data-image-id="20260202020236_5fdcca89b06fcc0a2f2a7620931bc7fa1e932c72a5c1f5e083d4fd06287218b7" data-rendition-name="original" width="1500" height="1000" loading="lazy" alt="Mai Pokhari"> <figcaption>Mai Pokhari in Ilam. Photo: JITENDRA RAJ BAJRACHARYA / ICIMOD</figcaption> </figure>  Its mid-elevation broadleaved forests provide habitat for many epiphytic orchids that grow without soil, attaching themselves to trees, and protected species such as the white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) and Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra). For the people of the area, this is more than a wetland. It is a living mother, an ancestral guardian, and at the heart of their cultural identity. But long before it was recognised internationally, it was already being protected through belief, respect, and traditional knowledge passed quietly from one generation to the next. This pattern of faith-based stewardship is repeated across the Himalaya. Spirituality has shaped conservation in ways no law ever could. Fishing, hunting, and polluting wetlands and rivers are strictly forbidden, not by force but by faith. When erosion threatened the pond in the 1930s, villagers planted pine trees along its edges. As forest degradation increased, the community organised itself, establishing community forests in 1992 and 2001. In 2004, the area surrounding the pond was formally recognised as a religious forest –- a recognition based on local devotion rather than outside instruction.  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260202020236_18ec88be3dadf3573074796decb255e3b536893d5778735cf6e7dc3184330017.jpg" data-media-id="editor_1" data-image-id="20260202020236_18ec88be3dadf3573074796decb255e3b536893d5778735cf6e7dc3184330017" data-rendition-name="original" width="919" height="540" loading="lazy" alt="Map of wetlands in Hindu Kush"> <figcaption>Map showing four wetlands in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. Source: RAMESH KATHARIYA / ICIMOD</figcaption> </figure>  In the lowland forests of western Nepal, lies Ghodaghodi, a wetland complex consisting of large and shallow oxbow lake with 13 associated marshes and meadows surrounded by tropical deciduous forest on the lower slopes of the Siwalik range along the southern edge of the Himalaya. These wetlands and forests serve as a critical wildlife corridor between the lowlands and the Siwalik, supporting several globally threatened species of plants and animals, and rare wild rice. To the people who live around it, especially the Indigenous Tharu, Ghodaghodi is alive – a sacred presence shaped by gods, ancestors, and centuries of belief. The name Ghodaghodi, which means horse and mare, carries ancient memories. Elders tell stories of divine beings who once moved through the landscape in animal form, leaving behind a lake infused with spiritual powers. The waters are believed to be the dwelling place of gods and goddesses, particularly Lord Shiva. This belief has shaped how the wetland is viewed: not as property to be owned, but as a holy space to be respected. Each year during the festival of Agan Panchami, thousands of pilgrims gather at Ghodaghodi, walking barefoot along forest paths with offerings of flowers, fruits, milk, and water. Polluting the water or harming its creatures is believed to invite misfortune. These unwritten cultural rules have conserved the wetland for generations, long before it was declared a wetland of global importance. In the central highlands of Bhutan lies the Gangtey-Phobji in a wide glacial valley. The Ramsar site is the prime wintering habitat for the globally vulnerable, black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis).  <figure> <img src="https://publisher-publish.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/pb-nepalitimes/swp/asv65r/media/20260202020236_7a8c7215ecc6928e7160e8057c761095e7021e711e1290f6d8b2c8a50879be64.jpg" data-media-id="editor_2" data-image-id="20260202020236_7a8c7215ecc6928e7160e8057c761095e7021e711e1290f6d8b2c8a50879be64" data-rendition-name="original" width="1500" height="998" loading="lazy" alt="Black necked crane"> <figcaption>Black-necked crane in Phobji. ALEX TREADWAY / ICIMOD</figcaption> </figure>  An annual festival at the Gangtey monastery welcomes the arrival of the cranes in November. Locals revere the birds as sacred messengers, and they are believed to bring blessings and prosperity. It is these beliefs that have helped preserve Bhutan’s flagship Ramsar site. In West Sikkim, the Khachoedpalri wetland was declared a Ramsar site in 2025. This Himalayan high-altitude wetland ecosystem and its surrounding temperate forests provide critical habitat for many species of flora and fauna, and the wetland serves as an important habitat and stopover site for migratory birds. But more importantly, it has religious significance as a pilgrimage site and is revered by both Buddhists and Hindus as a wish-fulfilling lake. It is these values that have supported its conservation from time immemorial. These wetlands are recognised internationally as Ramsar sites for their ecological and other attributes. However, the very cultural practices that preserved these wetlands, along with new external pressures, now threaten them. Many are now increasingly under threat due to growing human intervention – including misplaced practices such as the ritual release of exotic fish by the faithful. Some religious bodies now advise against these practices. Many others are drying out, silting up, or polluted by upstream activity. As these changes intensify, there is concern that not only biodiversity, but also the cultural practices and spiritual values tied to the wetlands may begin to fade. As we mark this year’s World Wetlands Day on 2 February with the theme ‘Wetlands and Traditional Knowledge: Celebrating Cultural Heritage’ it is a reminder that wetlands are not only ecosystems – they are rich cultural spaces. Traditional knowledge and belief systems have quietly conserved these wetlands for centuries, showing that when people revere nature, protection becomes a way of life. It is this profound connection, where culture nurtures ecology that we must safeguard to ensure neither wetlands nor the heritage they hold fade away. Sunita Chaudhary is the Biodiversity Lead at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).

Where culture meets ecology

Balendra (Balen) Shah’s <a href="https://www.facebook.com/balenOfficial/posts/pfbid0zAnJsVzFZPPLquqBoV414Mq8mBtMRbSpqoLGpEVYdgwNfGeksnLSkT4VWyLe5Afpl">first Facebook post in 2012</a> was a rap song about his school days. In many other YouTube videos, a younger beardless Shah raps in expletives-ridden X-rated perfornances.
Fourteen years later, <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/news/snowbalen">Shah was elected mayor of Kathmandu</a>, resigned, and is now challenging a former prime minister in K P Oli’s home turf of Jhapa-5. This battle is not just about one constituency, but Nepal’s future political trajectory post-September.
But who is this man? <a href="https://www.youtube.com/@BalenShah">Shah rapped</a> about social issues and injustices ridiculing the establishment with profane lyrics. He crossed all boundaries, emerging as an iconoclast who has gone from critiquing the government to governance.
After announcing his candidacy for mayor of Kathmandu in 2022, people began digging into his<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zek-Cgr8Mg4"> rap battle</a> against Litl Grizl on YouTube called Raw Barz, pioneered by the legendary rappers Yama Budhha and Kolin Rana.
Started in 2010, in its five-year run, Raw Barz worked to give underground voices a stage to turn wordplay into reputation and rhythm into recognition. Sacar and Uniq Poet were the first to partake in the rap battle.&nbsp;
Stinging lyrics and verses fired like friendly warnings were the ingredients that gave early Raw Barz its restless energy. Every line felt like a challenge, every performance like a small arena, where lyrics and delivery decided who held the floor. The crowd was lively and responsive.
“When I saw Balen, it was love at first sight,” recalls Girish Khatiwada, one half of the duo Girish Pranil (GP) who is regarded as <a href="https://archive.nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=2788">Nepal’s first rapper</a>. “Balen is lyrically versatile, with a sharp ear for language and a strong command of the technical elements of rap.”&nbsp;
Girish used to judge alongside Shah and Lay Zy on Nepal’s first rap reality show, Nephop ko Shreepech. The mentors for the show were Mr D, Easi 12, Kavi G, Dayjen and Vyoma, all rooted in Raw Barz.&nbsp;
This legacy was shaped by Yama Buddha in the 2010s, of a space that nurtured Nephop as an emancipatory culture, allowing young voices to break free from social silence, rigid norms, and limited platforms for expression.
Shah’s debut single, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cV5pgrkDkY4&amp;list=RDcV5pgrkDkY4&amp;start_radio=1">Sadak Balak</a>, released in 2012, became a foundational underground track on his official YouTube channel. In it he sings about the system that neglects a street kid facing social adversity, and demonstrates his knack for seamlessly combining music and art with social commentary.
The same year, he released Tathya, about media manipulation, corruption, and representation. In another <a href="https://www.facebook.com/balenOfficial/posts/pfbid02s9Y6MmKc5GKHJReuu4Hgq6XKNEuVtVpXQZXz8uH7kHAKXPAdTS8xDRumoNBsxFsAl">Facebook post in 2013</a>, he wrote a rap-like verse:
‘Balen mero nam, kaapi kalam le ladchhu mah,
Hatiyar ko kaam, sahitya le nai garchhu mah,
hamro desh ko shaan, ghatera achama parchu ma,
aam Nepali bavana ko pratinidhitwa garchu mah.’
Rough translation: I fight with pen and paper, weaponise literature and art to glorify Nepal, representing the aspirations of the Nepali people.&nbsp;
Also in 2013, Balen strove for political awareness and launched <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aqUlEi6uV3c&amp;list=RDaqUlEi6uV3c&amp;start_radio=1">Prahari Pratikaar </a>featuring Nibhaal, a ‘lyrical protest’ against police brutality. It was his response to a rule that forbade young men from letting their hair grow.&nbsp;
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZfKqojCmeg">Balidan</a> released in 2019 became a hit on its re-release on YouTube a year later with 12 million views. It was a call to truth, accountability, and a criticism of corruption.
CRITICAL LYRICS
Shah’s socially critical lyrics took direct aim at an apathetic state and resonated with millennial youth at the time. Propelled by the social media reach of RONB, Balendra Shah was elected mayor of Kathmandu, beating candidates from powerful established parties.
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCJRnlXy6SM&amp;list=RDlCJRnlXy6SM&amp;start_radio=1">Nepal Haseko </a>with 10 million views on YouTube became the anthem of the September GenZ protest, propelling 35-year-old Shah himself the torchbearer of youth aspirations.
“We used to hang out. It was around the time when Raw Barz came out,” remembers Manish Sharma, a close friend of Shah. “We later worked together on the campaign ‘We for Constitution,’ which was about urging the government to issue the Constitution of Nepal.”&nbsp;
He adds: “One might call him a rapper, but I prefer to call him a poet. His lyrics were a strong part of his art.”&nbsp;
Rapping is built on a set of skills that closely resemble those required in politics: timing, improvisation, argumentation and rhetoric, audience awareness, and sarcasm. A rapper must know when to strike a line, how far to push an argument, how to read the mood of listeners, and how to frame words so they leave an impact.&nbsp;
Shah’s first address in Maithili at Janakpur last week on his campaign trail for the March election had all of these skills combined.&nbsp;
This is not unlike New York City mayor Zohran Mamdani whose early life as a rapper under the name Young Cardamom helped shape his political instincts and debate performances.
Rap is not a bedtime story, it is a document of contemporary society. It is often debased for its &nbsp;foul language, something even Shah has been accused of in his older songs. But rap does not simply talk about violence or rage, but <a href="https://nepalitimes.com/here-now/hip-hop-as-a-way-of-life">it is a reflection of our society</a> and what exists within: conflict, corruption, ambition, survival.
“Shielding children from rap lyrics might protect innocence, but engaging with it critically can build awareness,” says Girish Khatiwada. “Rap is simply an art form like any other.”&nbsp;
The rap culture is getting stronger. ST MAN’s Cinema featuring Somea is already closing in on the five-million-view mark on YouTube, while Purple’s Bhatbhatey Ma featuring Gwala hit five million in a month.&nbsp;
If anything, Nepali hip-hop is not slowing down, it is accelerating, fully aware that people are tuning in, and Shah’s legacy looms large in all this.&nbsp;
Shah was asked <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxI-8DVWIQQ">in an interview</a> at the World Association of the Major Metropolises in Brazil last year on how he would want to be remembered as a mayor, to which he replied: “I would love to be remembered as an honest guy, rather than a musician or an engineer or a mayor.” &nbsp;
 
म नेपाल हासेको हेर्न चाहन्छु
नेपाली को मन नाचेको हेर्न चाहन्छु
म नेपाल हासेको हेर्न चाहन्छु
नेपाली खुसिले बाचेको हेर्न चाहन्छु
[Verse 1]&nbsp;
अत्याचार, आक्रमण, अपराध, असमझदारी
विकल्प बिहिन, बिदेशी बैंक भन्छ भिखारी
शिकारी नेता, अभिनेता बन्छ क्रान्तिकारी
बिगारी केटाकेटी, भोको पेट रेटि सिपाही
अविवाहित चेलीबेटी, बोकि पेट खेपी पिटाइ
बिताइ रात, कुटाइ घात खाएर शरीर बिकाइ
देशको माटो नै मिठाई ठानी मैदान त्यो युद्ध को
गिद्ध थियो जो देशको लागि, भक्त झै प्रसिद्ध भो&nbsp;
निशब्द भो अवशेष बाकी, चोखो बोली जो सित थियो&nbsp;
सिरजफ्त भो देशब्यापी आत्मघाती जो पबित्र थियो&nbsp;
आफ्नो प्राण को आहुती, आफ्नै ज्यान को बिभुती&nbsp;
लाई हिडेका सहिद को केवल नामावली बिभुसित&nbsp;
कुण्ठित पिडामा डुबेकी आमालाइ के काम बिदुसी&nbsp;
गरिब लाई दुई छाक नै खुसी, सरिफ लाई चाहिन्छ कुर्सी&nbsp;
आमा कै सारी बेचेर धनाढ्य संगै छ पुजी&nbsp;
गोजि भरी भारु, भरौ भरेर भारती को रोजि म
[Chorus]&nbsp;
म नेपाल हासेको हेर्न चाहन्छु...
[Verse 2]
देश एउटा सुन्दर बगैंचा होस, रंगिचंगी फुलहरु
हरेक लाई समान गलैचा होस, सादर हरेक मुलहरु
अनुकुल, प्रतिकुल हरु चिन्ता गर्ने भावना होस
सामुहिक खुसी बिनाको के फाइदा त्यो चाहना को
औचित्य के त्यो कामना को एउटा हासो फुट्न लाई
उद्धेश्य लेउ, एक हौ हरेक हात हरु जुट्न लाई
गरेर अब देखाउ, कालो अतीत लाई मेटाउ
पालो हाम्रो हो भेटाउ, कल्पना गर शान्ती को
सपना देख्ने कै पूरा हुन्छ, जागृति नै क्रान्ति हो
विपना मा बाटो खुल्ला हुन्छ आकृतिको सालिक को
नसोच्नु तिमी मालिक हौ र मिहिनेत गर्ने नोकर हो
तिमिले ठोक्कर खानेछौ मानव मानवता बेगर को
एकपटक कारण बनी हेर अरुको सानो हासो को
उसको मुस्कान मा रमाइ हेर निस्वार्थ प्रेम साचो हो
यो खाचो हो मायाको, पूरा भए नेपाल हास्नेछ
एक आपस मर्म बुझिदिए हरेक क्षणमा बाच्नेछौ
&nbsp;[Chorus]&nbsp;
म नेपाल हासेको हेर्न चाहन्छु...
English translation:
I want to see Nepal smile.
I want to see the hearts of Nepalis dance.
I want to see Nepal smile.
I want to see Nepalis living happily.
[Verse 1]
Oppression, attacks, crime, and confusion,
No alternatives, foreign banks calling us beggars.
Predatory leaders turn into actors, posing as revolutionaries.
Corrupted children, hungry stomachs, wounded soldiers.
Unmarried daughters, carrying pain, beaten and burdened,
Nights spent enduring violence, bodies sold after suffering.
The nation’s soil treated as sweet sacrifice, a battlefield of war,
Those who devoured the country were praised like saints.
Silence remains, truth buried, purity erased,
Suicide glorified, martyrdom commercialised.
Sacrifices reduced to lists of names,
What comfort is that to a mother drowning in grief?
For the poor, two meals are happiness; for the elite, power is the goal.
Selling a mother’s sari to build wealth,
Pockets full of Indian currency, living off others’ labour.
[Chorus]&nbsp;
I want to see Nepal smile…
[Verse 2]
Let the country be a beautiful garden with colorful flowers,
Let there be equality, respect for every face.
What is desire without shared happiness?
What is hope if no one smiles?
Come together, erase the dark past,
Our turn has come, imagine peace.
Dreams come true when awakening becomes revolution.
Do not think you are the master and others your servants,
Without humanity, power collapses.
Create smiles for others, that is true love.
If we understand each other, Nepal will smile.
[Chorus]&nbsp;
I want to see Nepal smile…

moss

Let’s not forget mosses

Mass migration from Muktikot

Bye-bye range anxiety

Where culture meets ecology

Political Rap